Paleohistopathology of bone: A new approach to the study of ancient diseases

Abstract

Light microscopy, particularly the use of polarized light, has such a high value for the differential diagnosis of dry bones that it can no longer be neglected. Alterations caused intra vitam by disease or other living conditions can clearly be differentiated by this technique from changes due to postmortem reactions (e.g., pseudopathology). As a reliable diagnosis is the basis not only of the study of case reports but also of the etiology and epidemiology of diseases in ancient populations, paleopathologists would be well-advised to employ histological analysis for their research, to avoid false diagnoses. The necessary basis for such research is the knowledge of the general histology, histogenesis, and growth as well as pathophysiology of bone. Some new techniques which facilitate the practical use of microscopic analysis, such as the preparation of thin-ground sections from undecalcified bone samples and nonrehydrated mummified soft tissues, are described. Selected examples of mechanisms of pathological bone changes, particularly the determination of vestiges of diseases in macerated bones by microscopy, are presented. Emphasis is placed on the differential diagnoses of proliferative reactions (e.g., periosteal processes of long bones and the skull). In this context, the importance of meningeal reactions on the endocranial lamina of the skull for morbidity and mortality in ancient populations is demonstrated. Furthermore, porotic hyperostosis of the skull vault and the orbital roof, i.e., the cribra cranii externa and cribra orbitalia, is discussed. Selected examples of the etiology and epidemiology of ancient diseases are presented (e.g., anemia, scurvy, rickets, and meningeal diseases), and ideas on living conditions and their implications for the origin and the spread of disease are given to establish a better understanding of deficiency and infectious diseases in the past.

Histological structure of antlers in castrated male fallow deer (Dama dama)

“…Also, elsewhere in the mammalian skeleton, the ossification process of cartilage replacement bones regularly involves the formation of a sleeve of bone at the periphery of the cartilage by periosteal activity (Hall, 1978;Banks, 1981). This type of intramembranous bone formation is often referred to as perichondral ossification (Schultz, 2001), while Banks (1981) proposed the term "epichondral ossification" for the process.…”

“…The specimens were then thoroughly rinsed in water, dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol, embedded in paraffin wax, transversely sectioned at 12 m, and stained with Azan dye. For the production of transverse thin ground sections, undecalcified block samples were dehydrated, embedded in epoxy resin (Biodur), and ground to a thickness of either 50 or 70 m; for details of the method, see Schultz (1988Schultz ( , 2001.…”

“…For higher magnifications, antler sections were photographed with a photomicroscope (Axioskop 2 Plus; Zeiss, Jena, Germany) equipped with a Canon Powershot G2 digital camera using plain or polarized transmitted light. In the latter case, a hilfsobject red first order (quartz) was used as compensator; for details of the technique, see Schultz (1988Schultz ( , 2001. The acquired digital images were further processed using Adobe Photoshop 7.0 software.…”

Treponemal disease in the Old World? Integrated palaeopathological assessment of a 9th–11th century skeleton from north-central Spain

“…The great majority of lesions commonly attributed to syphilis, such as periostitis and tibial bowing, are non-specific and can be caused by different diseases, both infectious and no-infectious, so it is not unusual that bone alterations of putatively syphilitic individuals mimic several diseases. Von Hunnius et al (2006) recommended a microscopic approach to differentiate disease processes, but also commented on the difficulties in using the features reccomended by Schultz (2001) for palaeohistological diagnosis: Grenzstreifen (border stripes), polsters (padding) and 'sinous lacunae.' Other authors, such as Weston (2009), have suggested that these microscopic features cannot be used to diagnose specific pathological conditions at all, as they were found to occur in pathological bone specimens with different disease aetiologies.…”

Pharaohs and Mummies: Diseases of Ancient Egypt and Modern Approaches

“…Miscroscopic analysis of carefully removed fragments can also be useful. Here techniques which such as the preparation of thin-ground sections from undecalcified bone samples and non-rehydrated mummified soft tissues can be examined [8].…”