Parental Bonding and Identity Style as Correlates of Self‐Esteem Among Adult Adoptees and Nonadoptees*

Abstract

Adult adoptees (n = 100) and non-adoptees (n = 100) were compared with regard to selfesteem, identity processing style, and parental bonding. While some differences were found with regard to self-esteem, maternal care, and maternal overprotection, these differences were qualified by reunion status such that only reunited adoptees differed significantly from nonadoptees. Moreover, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that parental bonding and identity processing style were more important than adoptive status per se in predicting selfesteem. Implications for practitioners who work with adoptees are discussed.Keywords: adoptees, reunion, bonding, counselling, identity, self-esteem. Adult Adoptees 3Parental Bonding and Identity Style as Correlates of Self-Esteem Among Adult Adoptees and Non-AdopteesThe development of a healthy self-esteem is an important indicator of psychological adjustment, with self-esteem being related to numerous emotional, cognitive, and behavioral variables (Leary & MacDonald, 2003). Compared with those who have low self-esteem, people with high self-esteem tend to be less anxious and depressed (Battle, Jarratt, Smit, & Precht, 1988), less likely to use illicit drugs (Taylor & Del Pilar, 1992), more socially skilled (Buhrmester, Furman, Wittenberg, & Reis, 1988), and more likely to have a secure attachment style (Meyers, 1998). A related concept, namely the establishment of a wellintegrated identity, is also indicative of optimal psychological functioning (Waterman, 1992).Indeed for Erikson (1980), self-esteem and identity development were inextricably linked. He argued that "self-esteem, confirmed at the end of each major crisis, grows to be a conviction that one is learning effective steps toward a tangible future, that one is developing a defined personality within a social reality which one understands" (pp. 94-95).While all individuals have to grapple with issues of self-esteem and identity throughout their lives, adoption has sometimes been conceptualized as a risk factor that undermines healthy development in these areas. For example, adoptees often score lower than non-adoptees on self-esteem (Levy-Shiff, 2001), and numerous authors have argued that the process of identity development is longer and more complex for adoptees (Grotevant, 1997b;Hoopes, 1990). Not only do adoptees have to come to terms with their emerging sense of self in the context of the family and culture into which they have been adopted (Grotevant, 1997a), but those who reunite with one or more birth relatives have the added task of integrating their biological and adoptive identities. Thus, in any study investigating selfesteem and identity development in adoptees, it would seem important to also include family variables and reunion data. We have done so in the current study by including parental bonding and reunion status as two of the variables of interest.Adult Adoptees 4The current study has three main aims. First, we investigated the relationship between adoptive status and three psychosocial var...

Depression, Emotional Arousability, and Perceptions of Parenting in Adult Adoptees and Non-Adoptees

“…These results mesh with previous findings that a well-functioning adoptive family can buffer adoptees against poor psychosocial outcomes (e.g., Passmore et al, 2005), and confirms the importance of early childhood attachments to later adult functioning. While adoptive status is unchangeable, interventions aimed at strengthening adoptive family relationships could be helpful in preventing or alleviating adjustment problems for adoptees.…”

“…Specifically, those who reported more overprotective parenting had higher depression scores. While we are unaware of any previous studies that have investigated the relative contributions of adoptive status and parenting to the prediction of depression, these results are consistent with findings in the selfesteem area (Passmore et al, 2005). In contrast, and in support of Hypothesis 1b, adoptive status and parental variables both made significant contributions to the prediction of emotional arousability.…”

“…Thus, it is possible that the greater economic and parental stability experienced by the adoptees protected them against depression. Indeed, a number of studies suggest that a wellfunctioning adoptive family can buffer the adoptee against negative psychosocial outcomes such as poor self-esteem (e.g., Kelly, Towner-Thyrum, Rigby, & Martin, 1998;Passmore, Fogarty, Bourke, & Baker-Evans, 2005). Powell and Afifi (2005) also found that adult adoptees were less likely to express feelings of loss if their adoptive families were open and accepting.…”

Reunions of Adoptees Who Have Met Both Birth Parents: Post-Reunion Relationships and Factors that Facilitate and Hinder the Reunion Process

“…As Grotevant et al note, this can put -adopted persons in an awkward position, since their familial ties are grounded in social relations rather than biology‖ (p. 381). In particular, identity development for adopted persons does not only involve the usual challenges facing their non-adopted peers, but the additional task of integrating their social and biological worlds (Grotevant, 1997;Passmore, 2004;Passmore, Fogarty, Bourke, & Baker-Evans, 2005). While there is some evidence that adoptees may initially focus on reuniting with their birth mothers (Trinder, Feast, & Howe, 2004), many adopted persons are also interested in meeting their birth fathers (e.g., Clapton, 2003;Passmore & Chipuer, 2009).…”

Ethnic and American Identity Development: A Developmental Systems Approach

“…Moreover, Erikson's (e.g., 1950Erikson's (e.g., , 1968 asserts that identity provides individuals with a foundation for feeling satisfaction with oneself (self-esteem), meaning and direction (purpose in life), and agency (internal locus of control). Recent studies have consistently established a relationship between identity commitment and positive well-being Passmore, Fogarty, Bourke, & Baker-Evans, 2005;Schwartz et al, 2011a;Waterman, 2007). Moreover, the development of a consolidated sense of self and identity has repeatedly been found to serve as a protective barrier against anxiety, depression, and problem behaviors (Adams et al, 2001;Jones & Hartmann, 1988;Luyckx et al, 2011;Schwartz et al, 2011a).…”