Objective: The present study investigates whether either adolescents' psychological distress and/or perceived parenting predicted the occurrence of NSSI. Furthermore, the consequences of NSSI are examined in a three-wave longitudinal study. Design: The sample at time 1 (age 12) consisted of 1396 adolescent reports and 1438 parent reports. At time 2 (age 13), 827 adolescent reports and 936 parent reports were obtained. Time 3 (age 14) included 754 adolescent reports and 790 parent reports.Psychological distress of adolescents was measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.Perceived parenting behaviors were examined by the Parental Behavior Scale and the Psychological Control Scale. Results: A total of 10% of the adolescents engaged in NSSI at least once before age 15.Higher psychological distress of adolescents at time 1 was associated with the presence of NSSI at time 2 or 3. The association between psychological distress at time 1 and perception of decreased parental rule setting at time 3 was mediated by the presence of NSSI at time 2. Conclusions: The present study showed that psychological distress at age 12 predicts NSSI over time and that parental awareness of NSSI changes the perception of parenting behaviors.
Keywords:Non-suicidal self-injury, adolescence, psychological distress, parenting, longitudinal. According to the dominant theories (e.g., Nock, 2009), NSSI is related to both (1) adolescent (intrapersonal) and (2) caregivers (interpersonal) factors which shape and maintain NSSI. Several intrapersonal correlates (most importantly emotion regulation and psychological distress) are hypothesized to be interwoven with interpersonal correlates (e.g., parenting, attachment, peer influences). With regard to caregivers characteristics, parenting behaviors may play an important role in both onset of NSSI (e.g., modulating physiological arousal/regulation, invalidating emotions, stressful life events such as abuse) and in maintaining NSSI (e.g., controlling behavior of parents). Although both intrapersonal and interpersonal correlates are hypothesized as exerting influences on onset of and maintaining NSSI, until now no longitudinal studies have examined these hypotheses. Furthermore, current dominant theoretical model (e.g., Nock) lack insight into consequences of NSSI over time. This large-scale, three-wave longitudinal study examined (1) the interaction between intrapersonal and interpersonal vulnerability factors for the NSSI, and (2) the consequences of NSSI over time. The present study focuses on the interplay between psychological distress as a potential intrapersonal correlate of NSSI (i.e., levels of internalizing and externalizing Running title: Longitudinal study of NSSI