Parkinson's Disease and Parkinsonism

The Dichotomic Role of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor in Neurodegeneration

“…While less than 10% of PD cases are familial, the majority of PD cases are sporadic and may depend on a combination of multiple factors, including age, gender, genetic, and environmental factors [44]. Male sex and increasing age may be independent risk factors, whereas smoking and coffee drinking seem to be protective factors [45]. About 30% of the familial and 3-5% of the sporadic PD cases are monogenic forms that derive from a single mutation in a gene and that can be inherited dominantly, such as SNCA (PARK1 = 4), and LRRK2 (PARK8) or recessively, such as Parkin (PARK2), PINK1 (PARK6), DJ-1 (PARK7), and ATP13A2 (PARK9) [46].…”

“…Currently, the most effective treatment for PD remains the first identified treatment that is levodopa and that is usually administered along with carbidopa [45]. Levodopa is the precursor to dopamine (DA) and can pass the blood-brain barrier, thus contributing to a major release of DA from the reduced number of dopaminergic neurons [45]. Moreover, DA agonists, such as pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine, are used to stimulate dopaminergic receptors in the CNS, thus improving PD symptoms [45].…”

“…Levodopa is the precursor to dopamine (DA) and can pass the blood-brain barrier, thus contributing to a major release of DA from the reduced number of dopaminergic neurons [45]. Moreover, DA agonists, such as pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine, are used to stimulate dopaminergic receptors in the CNS, thus improving PD symptoms [45]. Monoamine oxidase aldehyde dehydrogenase B (MAO-B) inhibitors, e.g., rasagiline and selegiline, and catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors, such as entacapone, are used in PD treatment with the aim to extend the effectiveness of carbidopa/levodopa [45].…”

“…Moreover, DA agonists, such as pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine, are used to stimulate dopaminergic receptors in the CNS, thus improving PD symptoms [45]. Monoamine oxidase aldehyde dehydrogenase B (MAO-B) inhibitors, e.g., rasagiline and selegiline, and catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors, such as entacapone, are used in PD treatment with the aim to extend the effectiveness of carbidopa/levodopa [45]. Furthermore, anticholinergic medications are used to reduce rigidity, dystonia, and tremor and tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, and serotonin reuptake inhibitors may be administered in case of depression that is a common comorbidity associated with PD [45].…”

“…Monoamine oxidase aldehyde dehydrogenase B (MAO-B) inhibitors, e.g., rasagiline and selegiline, and catechol-O-methyl transferase inhibitors, such as entacapone, are used in PD treatment with the aim to extend the effectiveness of carbidopa/levodopa [45]. Furthermore, anticholinergic medications are used to reduce rigidity, dystonia, and tremor and tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, and serotonin reuptake inhibitors may be administered in case of depression that is a common comorbidity associated with PD [45]. In cases where primary treatment is not effective, deep brain stimulation may be a potential therapeutic strategy [45].…”