Parthenogenesis in dipterans: a genetic perspective

Abstract

Parthenogenesis has been documented in almost every phylum of animals, and yet this phenomenon is largely understudied. It has particular importance in dipterans since some parthenogenetic species are also disease vectors and agricultural pests. Here, we present a catalogue of parthenogenetic dipterans, although it is likely that many more remain to be identified, and we discuss how their developmental biology and interactions with diverse environments may be linked to different types of parthenogenetic reproduction. We discuss how the advances in genetics and genomics have identified chromosomal loci associated with parthenogenesis. In particular, a polygenic cause of facultative parthenogenesis has been uncovered in Drosophila mercatorum, allowing the corresponding genetic variants to be tested for their ability to promote parthenogenesis in another species, Drosophila melanogaster . This study probably identifies just one of many routes that could be followed in the evolution of parthenogenesis. We attempt to account for why the phenomenon has evolved so many times in the dipteran order and why facultative parthenogenesis appears particularly prevalent. We also discuss the significance of coarse genomic changes, including non-disjunction, aneuploidy, and polyploidy and how, together with changes to specific genes, these might relate to both facultative and obligate parthenogenesis in dipterans and other parthenogenetic animals.

The Characterization of Melanaphis sacchari Microbiota and Antibiotic Treatment Effect on Insects

“…However, its molecular basis is not well understood. Differential gene expression involved in the fertilization process as well as endoreduplication and chromosome duplication are some of the likely underlying causes [46].…”

Protocol for screening facultative parthenogenesis in Drosophila

“…If screening a species from a genus for which facultative parthenogenesis has not been as extensively studied as Drosophila , 2 , 3 , 4 we recommend performing preliminary screens with multiple different species from that genus, if possible, to get a baseline and determine a potential range of parthenogenetic ability. When developing this screening method, we screened 13 different Drosophila species in order to first determine a baseline indication of facultative parthenogenesis in Drosophila .…”

“…As the last virgin flies die, tabulate their lifespan and any details about parthenogens produced ( Table 1 ). Most Drosophila tested thus far are capable of facultative parthenogenesis, 4 and it occurs halfway through their lives ( Figure 1 ). Therefore, it is likely that some level of parthenogenesis will be detected.…”

“… 11 , 12 If they have mated it will become obvious by the presence of many male and female offspring. However, because Drosophila produce offspring with male characteristics as a result of nondisjunction (X/0 males) during meiosis, 4 the presence of males does not necessarily mean that the mothers are not virgin.…”

Mechanical Egg Activation and Rearing of First Instar Larvae of Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae)

“…Some animals can bypass fertilisation and produce offspring without sperm through a reproductive strategy known as parthenogenesis [5]. Parthenogenesis is a common mode of reproduction in insects and is particularly prevalent in the Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) [6,7].…”