Particle size of wheat, maize, and oat test meals: effects on plasma glucose and insulin responses and on the rate of starch digestion in vitro

Heaton, K W; Marcus, Samuel F.; Emmett, Pauline M; Bolton, Christopher

doi:10.1093/ajcn/47.4.675

Cited by 254 publications

(119 citation statements)

References 24 publications

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“…Although the instructions on the packet were followed, a number of subjects did not find the rice pleasant to eat and may have swallowed much of it with little chewing. Read et al (1986) demonstrated that swallowing food without chewing significantly reduced the blood glucose responses, and foods with small particle size have been shown to produce higher glycaemic responses than foods with larger particle size (Heaton et al, 1988;Holt & Brand Miller, 1994).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Glycaemic glucose equivalent: validation as a predictor of the relative glycaemic effect of foods

2003

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Background: Glycaemic glucose equivalent (GGE) content of a quantity of a food, based on glycaemic index, food composition and food quantity, is the theoretical weight of glucose that would induce a glycaemic response equivalent to that induced by the given amount of food. Objectives: To test whether GGE content predicts glycaemic response to foods differing in glycaemic index, carbohydrate content and intake, over a practical range of carbohydrate intakes. Design: Controlled randomised study. Setting: Clinical trials unit at the Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Subjects: In all, 12 volunteers with and 12 without type II diabetes were recruited. All but one subject completed the trial. Method: Yams, biscuits, white rice and porridge were consumed at 10 and 20 GGE doses, and 2-minute noodles at 24 and 48 GGE, following an overnight fast. Incremental areas under the blood glucose response curves (IAUC) over 3 h were calculated for each individual for all foods, and individual glycaemic responsiveness was determined as IAUC/GGE. Results: Within GGE dose, blood glucose responses to all foods, except rice, were similar. Doubling GGE dose approximately doubled glycaemic response. Relative glycaemic effects were accurately predicted by GGE intake after adjusting for individual glycaemic sensitivity (individual average IAUC/GGE). The accuracy of prediction of relative glycaemic effect from GGE intake was affected little by carbohydrate dose. Conclusion: GGE content predicted glycaemic impact of foods over a practical range of carbohydrate intakes, and may therefore be useful for accurate dietary management of glycaemia in diabetes mellitus. The predictive validity of GGE in mixed meals now needs to be tested.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Glycaemic glucose equivalent: validation as a predictor of the relative glycaemic effect of foods

2003

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“…influence the digestibility of starch. Processing that reduces particle size, such as cracking of wheat grains, increases the in vitro digestibility of raw starch (Heaton et al, 1988).…”

Section: Increased Digestibility Of Cooked Starchmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For example, it reduces the particle size of raw plant items, leading to improved digestibility (Heaton et al, 1988). (However, pounding still leaves starch granules intact;…”

Section: The Impact Of Cooking On Human Evolutionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The energetic significance of cooking

Carmody¹,

Wrangham²

2009

Journal of Human Evolution

338

220

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While cooking has long been argued to improve the diet, the nature of the improvement has not been well defined. As a result, the evolutionary significance of cooking has variously been proposed as being substantial or relatively trivial. In this paper, we evaluate the hypothesis that an important and consistent effect of cooking food is a rise in its net energy value. The pathways by which cooking influences net energy value differ for starch, protein and lipid, and we therefore consider plant and animal foods separately.Evidence of compromised physiological performance among individuals on raw diets supports the hypothesis that cooked diets tend to provide energy. Mechanisms contributing to energy being gained from cooking include increased digestibility of starch and protein, reduced costs of digestion for cooked versus raw meat, and reduced energetic costs of detoxification and defense against pathogens. If cooking indeed consistently improves the energetic value of foods through such mechanisms, its evolutionary impact depends partly on the relative energetic benefits of non-thermal processing methods used prior to cooking.We suggest that if non-thermal processing methods, such as pounding, were used by Lower Paleolithic Homo, they likely provided an important increase in energy gain over unprocessed raw diets. However, cooking has critical effects not easily achievable by nonthermal processing, including the relatively complete gelatinization of starch, efficient denaturing of proteins, and killing of foodborne pathogens. This means that however sophisticated the non-thermal processing methods were, cooking would have conferred incremental energetic benefits. While much remains to be discovered, we conclude that the adoption of cooking would have led to an important rise in energy availability. For this reason, we predict that cooking had substantial evolutionary significance.

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“…The use of high-speed roller mills to very finely grind cereals removed almost all of the indigestible material and increased the yield and palatability. The starch was thus made much more digestible and the postprandial glycaemic and insulin responses were 2 -3-fold higher compared to coarsely ground flour or whole grain (Brand et al, 1985;Heaton et al, 1988). At about the same time potatoes were introduced into Western diets and they too have been shown to produce high glycaemic and insulin responses (Jenkins et al, 1988).…”

Section: The Evolution Of Dietary Carbohydratementioning

confidence: 99%

“…At the end of the last Ice Age the population was insulin resistant. The introduction of increased quantities of low glycaemic index carbohydrate with the advent of agriculture elicited only a small postprandial glucose and insulin response (Jenkins et al, 1984;Heaton et al, 1988). Thus, although the carbohydrate content of the diet had increased as a result of agriculture, the insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells were not unduly stressed.…”

Section: The Evolution Of Dietary Carbohydratementioning

confidence: 99%

The ‘carnivore connection’—evolutionary aspects of insulin resistance

Colagiuri

Brand-Miller

2002

Eur J Clin Nutr

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Insulin resistance is common and is determined by physiological (aging, physical fitness), pathological (obesity) and genetic factors. The metabolic compensatory response to insulin resistance is hyperinsulinaemia, the primary purpose of which is to maintain normal glucose tolerance. The 'carnivore connection' postulates a critical role for the quantity of dietary protein and carbohydrate and the change in the glycaemic index of dietary carbohydrate in the evolution of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinaemia. Insulin resistance offered survival and reproductive advantages during the Ice Ages which dominated human evolution, during which a high-protein low-carbohydrate diet was consumed. Following the end of the last Ice Age and the advent of agriculture, dietary carbohydrate increased. Although this resulted in a sharp increase in the quantity of carbohydrate consumed, these traditional carbohydrate foods had a low glycaemic index and produced only modest increases in plasma insulin. The industrial revolution changed the quality of dietary carbohydrate. The milling of cereals made starch more digestible and postprandial glycaemic and insulin responses increased 2 -3 fold compared with coarsely ground flour or whole grains. This combination of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinaemia is a common feature of many modern day diseases. Over the last 50 y the explosion of convenience and takeaway 'fast foods' has exposed most populations to caloric intakes far in excess of daily energy requirements and the resulting obesity has been a major factor in increasing the prevalence of insulin resistance.

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Particle size of wheat, maize, and oat test meals: effects on plasma glucose and insulin responses and on the rate of starch digestion in vitro

Cited by 254 publications

References 24 publications

Glycaemic glucose equivalent: validation as a predictor of the relative glycaemic effect of foods

Glycaemic glucose equivalent: validation as a predictor of the relative glycaemic effect of foods

The energetic significance of cooking

The ‘carnivore connection’—evolutionary aspects of insulin resistance

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