Partitioning the Energetics of Walking and Running: Swinging the Limbs Is Expensive

Marsh, Richard L.; Ellerby, David J.; Carr, Jennifer A.; Henry, Havalee T.; Buchanan, Cindy I.

doi:10.1126/science.1090704

Cited by 214 publications

(243 citation statements)

References 28 publications

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“…In middle to late stance, ‘hamstring’ EMG activity ceases, while that of the FTI continues (Gatesy, 1999b; Marsh et al ., 2004), consistent with slowing knee flexion and initiating knee extension by around 70% stance (Fig. 3a).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 62%

Gearing effects of the patella (knee extensor muscle sesamoid) of the helmeted guineafowl during terrestrial locomotion

et al. 2017

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Human patellae (kneecaps) are thought to act as gears, altering the mechanical advantage of knee extensor muscles during running. Similar sesamoids have evolved in the knee extensor tendon independently in birds, but it is unknown if these also affect the mechanical advantage of knee extensors. Here, we examine the mechanics of the patellofemoral joint in the helmeted guineafowl Numida meleagris using a method based on muscle and tendon moment arms taken about the patella's rotation centre around the distal femur. Moment arms were estimated from a computer model representing hindlimb anatomy, using hip, knee and patellar kinematics acquired via marker‐based biplanar fluoroscopy from a subject running at 1.6 ms−1 on a treadmill. Our results support the inference that the patella of Numida does alter knee extensor leverage during running, but with a mechanical advantage generally greater than that seen in humans, implying relatively greater extension force but relatively lesser extension velocity.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 62%

Gearing effects of the patella (knee extensor muscle sesamoid) of the helmeted guineafowl during terrestrial locomotion

et al. 2017

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“…FTI, EDL, FCRM) were generally the lowest force producers. Calculated emu muscle forces compared favorably with EMG data collected for guinea fowl Marsh et al 2004), except for some muscles known to be substantial contributors to the swing phase (ITBCR, ITRCR, IFB) in the guinea fowl, in which greater than expected forces were calculated for the emu.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 68%

Hip joint contact force in the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) during normal level walking

Goetz

Derrick

Pedersen

et al. 2008

Journal of Biomechanics

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The emu is a large, (bipedal) flightless bird that potentially can be used to study various orthopaedic disorders in which load protection of the experimental limb is a limitation of quadrupedal models. An anatomy-based analysis of normal emu walking gait was undertaken to determine hip contact forces for comparison with human data. Kinematic and kinetic data captured for two laboratoryhabituated emus were used to drive the model. Muscle attachment data were obtained by dissection, and bony geometries were obtained by CT scan. Inverse dynamics calculations at all major lowerlimb joints were used in conjunction with optimization of muscle forces to determine hip contact forces. Like human walking gait, emu ground reaction forces showed a bimodal distribution over the course of the stance phase. Two-bird averaged maximum hip contact force was approximately 5.5 times body weight, directed nominally axially along the femur. This value is only modestly larger than optimization-based hip contact forces reported in literature for humans. The interspecies similarity in hip contact forces makes the emu a biomechanically attractive animal in which to model loading-dependent human orthopaedic hip disorders.

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“…Most of the kinematic differences in the simulations appeared in the swing phase (figure 3), which may seem paradoxical if the metabolic cost of the swing phase is presumed to be minimal. However, recent studies have suggested that the cost of leg swing in locomotion comprises a substantial portion (up to 30%) of the total metabolic cost [21,31,32]. The body is also less mechanically constrained during swing, affording more freedom of motion.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of the minimum energy hypothesis and other potential optimality criteria for human running

et al. 2011

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A popular hypothesis for human running is that gait mechanics and muscular activity are optimized in order to minimize the cost of transport (CoT). Humans running at any particular speed appear to naturally select a stride length that maintains a low CoT when compared with other possible stride lengths. However, it is unknown if the nervous system prioritizes the CoT itself for minimization, or if some other quantity is minimized and a low CoT is a consequential effect. To address this question, we generated predictive computer simulations of running using an anatomically inspired musculoskeletal model and compared the results with data collected from human runners. Three simulations were generated by minimizing the CoT, the total muscle activation or the total muscle stress, respectively. While all the simulations qualitatively resembled real human running, minimizing activation predicted the most realistic joint angles and timing of muscular activity. While minimizing the CoT naturally predicted the lowest CoT, minimizing activation predicted a more realistic CoT in comparison with the experimental mean. The results suggest a potential control strategy centred on muscle activation for economical running.

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Partitioning the Energetics of Walking and Running: Swinging the Limbs Is Expensive

Cited by 214 publications

References 28 publications

Gearing effects of the patella (knee extensor muscle sesamoid) of the helmeted guineafowl during terrestrial locomotion

Gearing effects of the patella (knee extensor muscle sesamoid) of the helmeted guineafowl during terrestrial locomotion

Hip joint contact force in the emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) during normal level walking

Evaluation of the minimum energy hypothesis and other potential optimality criteria for human running

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