Past Epidemics, Natural Disasters, COVID19, and Mental Health: Learning from History as we Deal with the Present and Prepare for the Future

Abstract

As cases of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) continue to rise, psychological endurance is a challenge many people will face. For mental health, heightened stress responses to the pandemic, is likely to manifest in three ways: 1) development of a new episode of a disorder in those with a predisposition to a major psychiatric disorder or an acute exacerbation in those who already have such a disorder, 2) development of a trauma or stressor related disorder, such as acute stress disorder, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), or adjustment disorders, and 3) development of a symptomatic stress response that does not meet the diagnostic criteria of a psychiatric disorder. The authors reviewed existing literature on past epidemics, natural disasters, and COVID-19 with a focus on psychiatry and mental health. Psychological effects of past epidemics (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoV-1, Ebola, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, the Anthrax threat), past natural disasters, and current COVID-19 data suggest numerous psychological effects following the pandemic. Alcohol use, PTSD, anxiety, anger, fear of contagion, perceived risk, uncertainty, and distrust are a few of the immediate and long-term effects that are likely to result from the COVID-19 pandemic. Identifying people in need of mental health care and determining the appropriate psychiatric services and therapy needed will be important. Increasing the use and availability of telehealth, group meetings, and online resources are some ways that health care workers can prepare for the increasing demand of psychiatric services during and following the pandemic.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Risk Factors for Relapse

“…On the other hand, alcohol consumption can lead to increased craving via feedback loops of the reward system as described by the term addiction cycle (47). The association between alcohol consumption and PTSD symptoms is in line with prior findings reporting the interconnection between PTSD and SUDs (40). Furthermore, the positive correlation between craving and PTSD symptoms was also reported in a recent study on persons with SUDs (37).…”

“…Associations between stress and anxiety levels with increased alcohol use during the initial stage of the pandemic have already been demonstrated (39). Furthermore, addictive disorders and PTSD seem to be interconnected (40), and AUD and PTSD are both known outcomes of former crises (41).…”

The Italian COVID-19 Psychological Research Consortium (IT C19PRC): General Overview and Replication of the UK Study

“…The literature shows that psychological distress symptoms can last for years [ 13 , 33 , 34 , 35 ] and data from Italy confirms that the levels of psychological distress are still considerable two months after the end of the lockdown. Moreover, the literature about other infectious respiratory diseases (IRDs) (e.g., H1N1, MERS, SARS) shows that it is important to monitor psychological health also after the peak [ 34 , 35 , 36 ].…”

The Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic and Social Restrictions on Depression Rates and Maternal Attachment in Immediate Postpartum Women: a Preliminary Study

“…The quarantine during pandemic had psychological consequences such as increased posttraumatic stress symptoms, confusion and anger which were associated with financial status, fear of infection, boredom, inadequate reach for supplies, inadequate information, and quarantine duration [5,6]. Only limited studies have been performed on the psychosocial status of pregnant and postpartum women during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown.…”