Pathophysiology of Cardiovascular Diseases: New Insights into Molecular Mechanisms of Atherosclerosis, Arterial Hypertension, and Coronary Artery Disease

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are disorders associated with the heart and circulatory system. Atherosclerosis is its major underlying cause. CVDs are chronic and can remain hidden for a long time. Moreover, CVDs are the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, thus creating a major public health concern. This review summarizes the available information on the pathophysiological implications of CVDs, focusing on coronary artery disease along with atherosclerosis as its major cause and arterial hypertension. We discuss the endothelium dysfunction, inflammatory factors, and oxidation associated with atherosclerosis. Mechanisms such as dysfunction of the endothelium and inflammation, which have been identified as critical pathways for development of coronary artery disease, have become easier to diagnose in recent years. Relatively recently, evidence has been found indicating that interactions of the molecular and cellular elements such as matrix metalloproteinases, elements of the immune system, and oxidative stress are involved in the pathophysiology of arterial hypertension. Many studies have revealed several important inflammatory and genetic risk factors associated with CVDs. However, further investigation is crucial to improve our knowledge of CVDs progression and, more importantly, accelerate basic research to improve our understanding of the mechanism of pathophysiology.

Atherosclerotic-Derived Endothelial Cell Response Conducted by Titanium Oxide Nanotubes

“…The atherosclerotic lesions dictate extensive endothelial damage triggering a deficient re-endothelialization, cell adhesion, and proliferation to endovascular prosthetic surfaces, senescence, and apoptosis [ 1 , 7 ]. Far more concerning is the extensive research applying healthy endothelial models to test material surfaces (such as Ti6Al4V) without considering relevant conditions that recapitulate the damage of the site-specific cells.…”

“…Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the predominant pathophysiological processes causing mortality and morbidity, mainly in top-income countries [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Interestingly, among CVD, atherosclerosis points is the leading vascular condition characterized by critical chronic inflammation, lipids accumulation, fibrous elements, calcification, and plaque formation in the intima of blood vessels [ 4 , 5 ].…”

Atherosclerotic-derived endothelial cell response conducted by titanium oxide nanotubes

“…The atherosclerotic lesions dictate extensive endothelial damage triggering a deficient re-endothelialization, cell adhesion, and proliferation to endovascular prosthetic surfaces, senescence, and apoptosis [1,5]. Far more concerning is the extensive research applying healthy endothelial models to test material surfaces (such as Ti6Al4V) without considering relevant conditions that recapitulate the damage of the site-specific cells.…”

“…Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the predominant pathophysiological processes causing mortality and morbidity, mainly in top-income countries [1]. Interestingly, among CVD, atherosclerosis points as the leading vascular condition characterized by critical chronic inflammation, lipids accumulation, fibrous elements, calcification, and plaque formation in the intima of blood vessels [2,3].…”

Cellular Mechanisms of Coronary Artery Spasm

“…Atherosclerosis is characterized by the chronic accumulation of cholesterol-rich plaque in the arteries and is linked to a broad spectrum of cardiovascular diseases [ 56 ]. The disturbance of vascular endothelial structure and its function has also a major role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis [ 57 , 58 ].…”