Pedogenic carbonate stable isotope record of environmental change during the Neogene in the southern Great Plains, southwest Kansas, USA: Carbon isotopes and the evolution of C4-dominated grasslands

Initial Expansion of C4 Vegetation in Australia During the Late Pliocene

“…Nonetheless, any late Miocene C 4 vegetation must have been sparse, as it is not detectable in our C 29 to C 33 n-alkane record. This timing postdates the onset of most C 4 expansions in Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, which occurred across the middle to late Miocene (Cerling et al, 1997;Dupont et al, 2013;Feakins et al, 2013;Fox et al, 2012;Fox & Koch, 2004;Ghosh et al, 2017;Hoetzel et al, 2013;MacFadden et al, 1996;Passey et al, 2002;Passey et al, 2009;Quade & Cerling, 1995;Uno et al, 2016). The significant expansion in C 4 vegetation beginning at 3.5 Ma indicated by the inflection in our carbon isotope record reflects widespread biologically productive C 4 vegetation like that supported in the Australian monsoon tropics today (Williams et al, 2017).…”

“…The significant expansion in C 4 vegetation beginning at 3.5 Ma indicated by the inflection in our carbon isotope record reflects widespread biologically productive C 4 vegetation like that supported in the Australian monsoon tropics today (Williams et al, 2017). This timing postdates the onset of most C 4 expansions in Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, which occurred across the middle to late Miocene (Cerling et al, 1997;Dupont et al, 2013;Feakins et al, 2013;Fox et al, 2012;Fox & Koch, 2004;Ghosh et al, 2017;Hoetzel et al, 2013;MacFadden et al, 1996;Passey et al, 2002;Passey et al, 2009;Quade & Cerling, 1995;Uno et al, 2016).…”

Messinian age and savannah environment of the possible hominin Graecopithecus from Europe

“…[67], 52–43% C4-biomass) and are interpreted to represent wooded grassland[68] with low woody canopy cover[69]. …”

Small mammal tooth enamel carbon isotope record of C4 grasses in late Neogene China

“…In Argentina, C 4 plants are present in the ecosystem already at 9 Ma, and the main C 4 expansion took place 8-5 Ma (MacFadden et al, 1996;Hynek et al, 2012). In the Great Plains of North America, soil carbonate δ 13 C records Koch, 2003, 2004;Fox et al, 2012) indicate a presence of C 4 grass throughout Miocene with increased C 4 abundance after 6 Ma, while herbivore diets below 37°N show a significant C 4 component only after 8-6 Ma Passey et al, 2002). In South Asia, proxy records from the Siwaliks of Pakistan (Quade et al, 1989(Quade et al, , 1992Quade and Cerling, 1995;Cerling et al, 1997;Behrensmeyer et al, 2007;Kimura et al, 2013), India (Sanyal et al, 2004;Singh et al, 2011Singh et al, , 2013 and Nepal show the change from C 3 to C 4 biomass taking place 8-4.5 Ma.…”

“…In many regions, the emergence and expansion of C 4 grasses appear to have followed a two-stage pattern: a late Miocene appearance and a post-Miocene growth to dominance (e.g. Fox and Koch, 2004;Ségalen et al, 2007;Martin et al, 2008;Strömberg and McInerney, 2011;Biasatti et al, 2012;Fox et al, 2012). C 4 grasses became a significant part of herbivore diets between 9.9 and 6.5 Ma in Eastern Africa (3°S-5°N), 7 and 3 Ma in Central Africa (~16-22°S), and 5 and 3 Ma in Southern Africa (24-25°S), but ecosystem-level open C 4 grasslands were established only in the Pleistocene Ségalen et al, 2007;Uno et al, 2011).…”