Penalty success in professional soccer: a randomised comparison between imagery methodologies

Abstract

ObjectivesThe PETTLEP model is one of the most cited forms of imagery training to enhance sporting performance, but there is limited evidence for its long-term effectiveness and it is often compared to non-imagery controls rather than other imagery techniques. We compared PETTLEP with an imagery-based behavioural change intervention, Functional Imagery Training (FIT), and assessed long-term effectiveness for enhancing professional soccer player’s penalty kick taking.MethodsThirty male professional soccer players conducted a group goal setting task, were introduced to imagery, then randomly assigned to three conditions; individual PETTLEP, group-based FIT, or a control. Baseline penalty kick success was measured, then interventions commenced lasting for a week after which, penalties were conducted again. Penalties were conducted for a third time between 15 and 17 weeks after baseline measurements.ResultsThere were no differences in baseline scores between conditions on vividness of imagery and penalty kicking. Whilst the control condition did not improve, both imagery conditions improved penalty performance after one week, as did their vividness of imagery scores. However, after 15 weeks, only the FIT for groups condition maintained improvements on penalty scores and PETTLEP returned to baseline.ConclusionsImagery is effective in improving penalty kick taking, but PETTLEP does not support long-term change, whereas the motivational approach of FIT does.

Applied imagery for motivation: a person-centred model

“…Functional imagery training (FIT; Rhodes et al, 2018Rhodes et al, , 2020Rhodes et al, , 2021Solbrig et al, 2019) trains effective use of self-elicited, personal motivational imagery, building motivation and selfefficacy to successfully work towards and to achieve intermediate and long-term goals. Detailed interviewing techniques aim to evoke change by first examining values, beliefs and experiences verbally, and then by imagining the key outcomes of this process.…”

“…In sport, the same FIT methodology has been implemented for soccer players (Rhodes et al, 2018), using cues which triggers imagery (e.g., lacing up boots), to enhance imagery frequency resulting in athletes enhancing their level of grit, perceiving imagery enhanced performance. Further, to assess performance, Rhodes et al (2020) investigated penalty kick success by asking professional soccer players to take penalties at baseline, and then randomly separated into one of three groups: FIT with practice, PETTLEP with practice, and a practice control who discussed existing mental skills strategies, who were all supported for only one week. At the end of one week, and again after 15 weeks, participants completed a series of penalty kicks to assess changes from baseline.…”

“…We recognise the potential benefits and drawbacks when using imagery. It can enhance skills, manage emotions, and increase performance (Rhodes et al, 2020;Weinberg & Gould, 2018), but on the flip side can evoke unwanted images of injury, setbacks and fear (Hsu et al, 2017;Ievleva & Orlick, 1999). Through systematic processes, negative imagery has the potential to be managed, and a sense of self-control and self-efficacy is improved.…”

“…AIM is person-centred imagery, integrating motivational goals in a linear (non-scripted) sequence with the intention to add sensory richness, lucidity and the sharpness of an image. Initial research specifically using AIM has shown sustained performance increments in soccer (Rhodes et al, 2020) and when undertaking an ultra-marathon (Rhodes et al, 2021). AIM starts with an initial motivational interview (lasting roughly for one hour) which leads into three overarching stages of imagery (see Figure 1) that flow through four specific levels of motivation for goals.…”

“…Whilst existing motor imagery and other approaches are effective, we propose a hybrid method that is immediately useful for performance, intended to maintain performance and motivational increments over time. The model has been developed over the last few years and preliminary evaluations of its use have been published recently in professional (Rhodes et al, 2018(Rhodes et al, , 2020 and recreational adult sport (Rhodes et al, 2021), and healthcare (Turner et al, 2020). We bring this data together in the concluding sections, to provide directions for future research with the aspiration for AIM to be used by any interdisciplinary practitioner who supports an athlete.…”