Stinging ants have diversified into various ecological niches, and several evolutionary drivers may have contributed to shape the composition of their venom. To comprehend the drivers underlying venom variation in ants, we selected 15 Neotropical species and recorded a range of traits, including ecology, morphology, and venom bioactivity. Principal component analysis of both morphological and venom bioactivity traits revealed that stinging ants display two functional strategies. Additionally, phylogenetic comparative analysis indicated that venom function (predatory, defensive, or both) and mandible morphology significantly correlate with venom bioactivity and amount, while pain-inducing activity trades off with insect paralysis. Further analysis of the venom biochemistry of the 15 species revealed switches between cytotoxic and neurotoxic venom compositions in some species. This study highlights the fact that ant venoms are not homogenous, and for some species, there are major shifts in venom composition associated with the diversification of venom ecological functions.SignificanceVenoms are under severe evolutionary pressures, exerted either on the innovation of toxins or the reduction of the metabolic cost of production (1). To reduce the metabolic costs associated with venom secretion, some venomous animals can regulate venom expenditure by metering the amount of venom injected and by switching between offensive and defensive compositions (2–2). Many ants use venom for subduing a wide range of arthropod prey, as well as for defensive purposes against invertebrates and vertebrates, but are unable to adapt venom composition to stimuli (5, 6). Consequently, the expression of venom genes directly affects the ability of ants to interact with the biotic environment, and the venom composition may be fine-tuned to the ecology of each species. A previous study showed that defensive traits in ants exhibit an evolutionary trade-off in which the presence of a sting is negatively correlated with several other defensive traits, further supporting that trade-offs in defensive traits significantly constrain trait evolution and influence species diversification in ants (7). However, the sting is not used for the same purpose depending on the ant species. Our study supports an evolutionary trade-off between the ability of venom to deter vertebrates and to paralyze insects which are correlated with different life history strategies among Formicidae.
