Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Swedish Groundwater and Surface Water: Implications for Environmental Quality Standards and Drinking Water Guidelines

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Swedish aquatic environment, identify emission sources, and compare measured concentrations with environmental quality standards (EQS) and (drinking) water guideline values. In total, 493 samples were analyzed in 2015 for 26 PFASs (∑PFASs) in surface water, groundwater, landfill leachate, sewage treatment plant effluents and reference lakes, focusing on hot spots and drinking water sources. Highest ∑PFAS concentrations were detected in surface water (13 000 ng L) and groundwater (6400 ng L). The dominating fraction of PFASs in surface water were perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs; 64% of ∑PFASs), with high contributions from C-C PFCAs (94% of ∑PFCAs), indicating high mobility of shorter chain PFCAs. In inland surface water, the annual average (AA)-EQS of the EU Water Framework Directive of 0.65 ng L for ∑PFOS (linear and branched isomers) was exceeded in 46% of the samples. The drinking water guideline value of 90 ng L for ∑PFASs recommended by the Swedish EPA was exceeded in 3% of the water samples from drinking water sources ( n = 169). The branched isomers had a noticeable fraction in surface- and groundwater for perfluorooctanesulfonamide, perfluorohexanesulfonate, and perfluorooctanesulfonate, highlighting the need to include branched isomers in future guidelines.

Point source characterization of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and extractable organofluorine (EOF) in freshwater and aquatic invertebrates

“…Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts Paper products in both surface water and aquatic invertebrates. 6 : 2 FTSA was found to be associated to re training areas, but not in urban areas, 49 strengthening the theory that site K was indirectly impacted by AFFF products. As mentioned previously, the only hazardous waste facility in Sweden is located at site K, which disposes AFFF foams by incineration and might also handle AFFF contaminated soils in landlls.…”

“…br-PFHxS 7% and br-PFOS 20%). 49 The branched isomer contributions in invertebrate samples were lower compared to surface water, ranging from 0.0-6.6% for PFOA, 0.0-18% for PFHpS and 15-28% for PFOS (br-PFHxS could not be quantied). This was expected since branched isomers are more water-soluble than the linear compound and have been suggested to have a lower uptake, faster elimination and/or selective retention in biota.…”

“…Furthermore, leachate from landll could be expected from site K and besides the fact that the proportion of PFSAs were predominant in the homologue prole of K, it also had similarities to those found in Swedish landll/waste disposal leachates. 49 In general, Gobelius et al 49 found that source categories landll, urban area, and unspecic industry had similar PFAS homologue proles. Log transformed concentrations of PFHxS and PFOS were found to be positively correlated in all water samples (r ¼ 0.97, n ¼ 7) as well as in aquatic invertebrates (r ¼ 0.93 although the number of samples were low, i.e.…”

Leachate emissions of short- and long-chain per- and polyfluoralkyl substances (PFASs) from various Norwegian landfills

“…21)), and long-chain PFASs clearly dominated. 20 Studies from North American land-lls from 2006 to 2009 reported that specic short-chain PFASs were amongst the most dominant in landlls, 13,15 and this has also been reported in more recent studies from elsewhere such as China, 22 Germany, 17 Sweden, 23 and Spain. 24 It is therefore anticipated based on this shi of usage and data from other countries, that short-chain PFASs are emitted to a greater extent than long-chain PFASs from Norwegian landll leachate.…”

Screening of organic micropollutants in raw and drinking water in the Yangtze River Delta, China

“…On the other hand, PFHxS, PFOA and perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) were equally dominant in the Yangtze River water (22%, 23 % and 27%, respectively). The PFAS concentrations were generally comparable to other river water concentrations in China [24] or in the River Rhine watershed in Europe [25], but lower than other parts of the world such as Sweden [26], or India [27].…”