Perceived discrimination and depression among low-income Latina male-to-female transgender women

Abstract

BackgroundThis study examines exposure to perceived discrimination and its association with depression among low-income, Latina male-to-female transgender women as well as evaluates the impact of sexual partner violence and mistreatment on depression.MethodsA total of 220 Latina male-to-female transgender women who resided in Los Angeles, California, were recruited through community based organizations and referrals. Participants completed individual interviews using a structured questionnaire. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Perceived discrimination was assessed using a fifteen-item measure that was designed to assess the experiences of maltreatment of transgender individuals. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the association between perceived discrimination and depression after controlling for the presence of other variables.ResultsOf the sample, 35% reported significant depressive symptoms (PHQ-9 ≥ 15). Additionally, one-third of the participants indicated that in the two weeks prior to the interviews they had thought either of hurting themselves or that they would be better off dead. The extent of perceived discrimination in this population was extensive. Many of the participants experienced discrimination on a daily basis (14%) or at least once or twice a week (25%) as demonstrated by a positive response to at least 7 of 15 items in the measure of perceived discrimination. Almost six out of ten participants admitted that they had been victims of sexual partner violence. Those who reported more frequent discrimination were more likely to be identified with severe depression. There was also a notable association between self-reported history of sexual partner violence and depression severity.ConclusionsA significant association between depression severity and perceived discrimination was identified. How exposure to discrimination leads to increased risk of mental health problems needs additional investigation. Models investigating the association between perceived discrimination and depression among transgender women should include sexual partner violence as a potential confounding variable.

Stigmatization and Mental Health in a Diverse Sample of Transgender Women

“…These findings are in line with previous research on the association between stigmatization and psychological health. 7,13,43 For example, previous studies found that discrimination was significantly associated with severe depression in a sample of low-income, Latina transgender women, 7 and stigmatization was positively associated with psychological distress in an online sample of 1093 transgender participants. 13 This growing body of research brings attention to the social factors that contribute to high prevalence of psychological distress in transgender populations.…”

“…17 Studies have explored the risk and protective factors associated with mental health problems among transgender women. In studies of transgender women, depression was associated with level of education and a self-reported history of sexual partner violence 7 as well as exposure to both verbal and physical abuse. 11 A study including 515 transgendered individuals (392 MTF and 123 [female-to-male] FTM) revealed that histories of attempted suicide were higher among young, unemployed participants with a co-occurring history of alcohol or drug treatment.…”

“…1,2 Transgender individuals may be at elevated risk for mental health problems compared with non-transgender (or cisgender) individuals. 3,4 A robust body of transgender research provides consistent evidence of mental health problems, including low self-esteem, 5,6 depression, [6][7][8][9][10][11][12] anxiety, 8,13,14 and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. 4,10,15,16 In a sample of 226 transgender women, nearly half met criteria markers for depression and anxiety (51.4% and 40.4% respectively).…”

“…15 Prior studies have reported on the persistence of stigmatization among transgender individuals. 7,[18][19][20][21][22] Stigma can be defined as any attribute that is perceived to discredit an individual or group as being deviant from the norm, and stigmatization refers to interpersonal processes and social interactions characterized by a range of social phenomena including prejudice, mistreatment, and discrimination due to stigmatized attributes. 23,24 A study of 350 transgender individuals found that 41% reported experiences of transgender-related discrimination (TRD).…”

The Role of Gender Affirmation in Psychological Well-Being Among Transgender Women

“…Numerous studies have reported higher prevalence of psychological distress, including depressive symptoms, low self-esteem, and suicidal ideation in community samples of transgender women (MacCarthy, Reisner, Nunn, PerezBrumer, & Operario, 2015;Operario & Nemoto, 2010). Due to their gender identity or expression, transgender people experience high levels of gender-based social oppression, or transphobia, including everyday discrimination, family rejection, and hate crimes (Bazargan & Galvan, 2012;Bradford, Reisner, Honnold, & Xavier, 2012;Koken, Bimbi, & Parsons, 2009;Lombardi, Wilchins, Priesing, & Malouf, 2002;Nuttbrock et al, 2010). Scholars have proposed that adverse mental health outcomes in transgender populations are a result of this gender-specific social oppression (Bockting, Miner, Swinburne Romine, Hamilton, & Coleman, 2013;Goldblum et al, 2012;Haas et al, 2010;Nuttbrock et al, 2013;Reisner, Gamarel, Dunham, Hopwood, & Hwahng, 2013).…”