“…Several signal-based approaches as non-destructive methods include the time, frequency, and time-frequency domains (Liu et al, 2023). Some usable frequency domain techniques as variations in dynamic features, including natural frequency (Khodadadi & Mirjalili, 2022;Loya, Aranda-Ruiz & Zaera, 2022), modal Curvatures (Yang et al, 2022;Nguyen et al, 2020), mode shape (Hassani, Mousavi, & Gandomi 2022;Zhang et al, 2022), modal strain energy (MSE) (Shirazi et al, 2023;Daneshvar, 2022;Nguyen, & Livaoğlu 2022), frequency response functions (FRF), and power spectral density (PSD) (Fang et al 2023;Hadizadeh-Bazaz, Navarro, & Yepes 2022) are employed in vibration-based damage detection, some popular non-destructive testing methods.…”