Perspective: Design of cathode materials for sustainable sodium-ion batteries

Abstract

Manufacturing sustainable sodium ion batteries with high energy density and cyclability requires a uniquely tailored technology and a close attention to the economical and environmental factors. In this work, we summarized the most important design metrics in sodium ion batteries with the emphasis on cathode materials and outlined a transparent data reporting approach based on common metrics for performance evaluation of future technologies.Sodium-ion batteries are considered as one of the most promising alternatives to lithium-based battery technologies. Despite the growing research in this field, the implementation of this technology has been practically hindered due to a lack of high energy density cathode materials with a long cycle-life. In this perspective, we first provide an overview of the milestones in the development of Na-ion battery (NIB) systems over time. Next, we discuss critical metrics in extraction of key elements used in NIB cathode materials which may impact the supply chain in near future. Finally, in the quest of most promising cathode materials for the next generation of NIBs, we overlay an extensive perspective on the main findings in design and test of more than 295 reports in the past 10 years, exhibiting that layered oxides, Prussian blue analogs (PBAs) and polyanions are leading candidates for cathode materials. An in-depth comparison of energy density and capacity retention of all the currently available cathode materials is also provided. In this perspective, we also highlight the importance of large data analysis for sustainable material design based on available datasets. The insights provided in this perspective, along with a more transparent data reporting approach and an implementation of common metrics for performance evaluation of NIBs can help accelerate future cathode materials design in the NIB field. Graphical abstract

Mapping Heterogeneity of Pristine and Aged Li‐ and Na‐Mnhcf Cathode by Synchrotron‐Based Energy‐Dependent Full Field Transmission X‐ray Microscopy

“…[4] Higher chemical reactivity of Na can cause rapid electrolyte consumption and faster solid electrolyte interphase formation. [5][6][7][8] On the other hand, Na does not form an alloy with Al, even at reduced potentials, therefore Al can be used instead of Cu as the current collector, further reducing the price of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs).…”

Evaluating Electrolyte–Anode Interface Stability in Sodium All-Solid-State Batteries

“…To accommodate the rapidly growing adoption rates of renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, grid energy storage systems are a complementary and required technology to store the TWh levels of energy produced and consumed each day. , Currently, grid energy storage technologies include hydro pumps, compressed air, flywheels, and secondary batteries . Na battery technologies recently emerged as a prospective candidate for grid storage applications, thanks to ubiquitous Na material sources and a lower overall cost per kWh. − Although the gravimetric energy densities of Na batteries are inherently lower than their Li counterparts, they can still potentially achieve competitive volumetric energy densities, making them suitable for stationary applications. Beyond energy densities, safety is also a metric of paramount importance especially when introducing large amounts of batteries into urban and densely populated environments.…”

Glass-Ceramic Sodium-Deficient Chlorides with High Sodium-ion Conductivity

“…As such, sodium ASSBs are a prospective technology for these large-scale applications, owed to the usage of intrinsically cheaper and more abundant raw materials. [1][2][3] Moreover, sodium ASSBs have been shown to deliver stable long-term cycling, possibly enabling both a long battery lifetime and lower overall cost. 4 Solid electrolytes (SEs) are the cornerstone of ASSBs, ultimately playing a principal role in the device's performance.…”