Pharmaceutical Applications of Graphene-based Nanosheets

Abstract

Graphene-based nanosheets (GNS) are atomic-thickness monolayers of hexagonally arranged, graphite-derived carbon atoms that may be composed of graphene, graphene oxide, or reduced graphene oxide. They have attracted tremendous interest for their potential in pharmaceutical applications, due to their unique physical, chemical, and mechanical properties GNS exhibit highly uniform surface areas and may have hydroxyl (-OH), epoxide (-O-), and carboxyl functional groups at their basal surfaces and plane edges, depending on their oxidized and reduced surface properties. GNS show high-level optical absorption of near infrared (NIR) light and elevate the temperature of nearby environments. Furthermore, they can be loaded with anticancer drugs via hydrophobic interactions, π-π stacking, or electrostatic binding. Given these properties, GNS can be used in chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and theranostics. However, although GNS appear to have far-reaching potential in the field of biomedical research, their widespread pharmaceutical application has been limited by issues such as poor stability in physiological buffers, undefined mechanisms of cellular uptake, toxicity problems, and a lack of standard preparation methods. Here, we review the current pharmaceutical applications of GNS, focusing on chemotherapy, phototherapy, combo therapy and theranostic applications with challenging issues.

Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Activation as the Main Mechanisms Underlying Graphene Toxicity against Human Cancer Cells

“…Novoselov et al first described graphene in 2004 as monocrystalline graphitic film and received Nobel Prize in 2010 for the exploration of its exceptional properties [ 1 ]. The discovery of graphene became a new driving force in the development of nanoindustry [ 2 , 3 ]. Graphene is a single-atom-thick, two-dimensional sheet of sp 2 -hybridized carbon atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern like in honeycomb structure ( Figure 1 ) [ 4 – 9 ].…”

“…Graphene-based materials are promising in the field of biosensing and bioimaging (optical sensing, fluorescence imaging probes, and electrochemical sensing) [ 4 , 5 , 12 , 18 ]. Furthermore, graphene nanomaterials have been used in advanced therapeutic techniques such as photothermal and photodynamic therapies [ 3 , 16 ].…”

“…GO is a highly oxidized form of graphene [ 4 , 22 , 23 ] produced mainly by chemical methods through energetic oxidation of graphite using different oxidant agents or known procedures as in Hummers method [ 10 , 12 ]. GO nanosheets present hydroxyl and epoxide functional groups on their basal surface and carboxyl functional groups on their plane edges [ 3 ]. GO has usually 1–3 layers (1-2 nm thick), with size ranging from a few to several hundred nanometers [ 12 ].…”

Phthalocyanine-loaded graphene nanoplatform for imaging-guided combinatorial phototherapy

“…47,48 Our nonmodified LOGr nanosheets exhibited an enhanced dispersion in water; however, they were not stable in physiological solutions and thus require further functionalization. Similar to other nanomaterials for biomedicine application, the toxicity of graphene is related to its surface functionalization.…”

Simulação de Dipolos Retangulares de Grafeno na Faixa de Terahertz no COMSOL

“…A sua elevada condutividade elétrica, combinada com a sua resistência, flexibilidade e transparência, tornam o grafeno um material ideal para aplicações em dispositivos eletrônicos que sejam flexíveis. Devido à vantagem proveniente da elevada mobilidade dos elétrons, o grafeno é ideal na conexão de transístores de alta frequência para aplicações exigentes no domínio da eletrônica, moduladores, eletrônicos orgânicos [1] e na área farmacêutica [2].…”