Pharmacokinetics of Amoxicillin Plus Clavulanic Acid in Blue-fronted Amazon Parrots (Amazona aestiva aestiva)

Aspergillusinfections in birds: a review

“…Amphotericin B Intravenous 1.5 mg/kg q a 8 h 3 to 5 days (Flammer, 1993;Joseph et al, 1994), 10 to 14 days (Jenkins, 1991) Intratracheal 1.5 mg/kg q8 to 12 h (raptors) (Redig & Duke, 1985) Nebulization 1 mg/kg q24 h 10 to 14 days (Jenkins, 1991), q12 h (raptors) (Joseph et al, 1994) Into air sac 1 mg/ml 15 min 5 to 7 days every other week (Orosz & Frazier, 1995), q12 h (Joseph et al, 1994) Topical (wound) Dose not specified (Flammer, 1993) 1.35 mg/kg q24 h (liposomally encapsulated amphotericin B) (Bonar & Lewandowski, 2004) Clotrimazole Topical Dose not specified (Flammer, 1993) Nebulization 10 mg/ml polyethylene glycol for 30 to 45 min q24 h 3 days on/2 days off (1 to 4 months) (Joseph et al, 1994;Orosz & Frazier, 1995) Enilconazole Topical Dose not specified (Flammer, 1993) Nebulization 0.1 ml/kg for 30 min q24 h 5 days on/2 days off (raptors) (Heatly et al, 2007) Disinfection Environment: flush with solutions as recommended for use in poultry houses (Flammer, 1993) Fluconazole Oral, intravenous 5 mg/kg q24 h 7 days (Bauck et al, 1992;Flammer, 1993) 15 mg/kg q12 h (psittacines) (Pericard, 2005) Itraconazole Oral 5 to 15 mg/kg q12 h with food for 7 to 21 days (Bauck et al, 1992) 10 mg/kg q24 h 3 weeks (Verstappen & Dorrestein, 2005) (falcons) 15 mg/kg per orally q12 h/q24 h (Abrams et al, 2001), 10 to 20 mg/kg q12 h/q24 h (Flammer, 1993) 5 mg/kg q24 h 30 days (African grey parrots) (Orosz & Frazier, 1995) 5 to 10 mg/kg q24 h (Amazon parrots) (Orosz et al, 1996), 6 mg/kg q12 h (pigeons) (Lumeij et al, 1995) Preventive: 10 mg/kg q24 h 10 days (Forbes, 1992), 20 mg/kg q24 h (Meredith, 1997), 15 to 25 mg/kg/day for 1 week (Xavier, 2008) Ketoconazole Oral 10 to 30 mg/kg q12 h 21 days (resuspending in orange juice q5 days) (Bauck et al, 1992) 20 to 30 mg/kg q12 h (Flammer, 1993), 30 mg/kg q12 h 14 to 30 day...…”

Pharmacokinetics of Nebulized Terbinafine in Hispaniolan Amazon Parrots (Amazona ventralis)

“…11 Terbinafine inhibits squalene epoxidase, an enzyme involved in the synthesis of ergosterol, which gives terbinafine both fungicidal and fungistatic activity. 1,2,12 Terbinafine has historically been used in humans to treat dermatophytosis but was recently found to be useful in the treatment of refractory and systemic fungal infections, particularly those caused by Aspergillus species. 13 than 5% of the liver's cytochrome P450 enzyme, thus reducing potential adverse effects and allowing for safe combined use with other antifungals.…”

“…13 than 5% of the liver's cytochrome P450 enzyme, thus reducing potential adverse effects and allowing for safe combined use with other antifungals. 1,2,11,12 Relative to other antifungals, terbinafine has a better safety profile, which could make it useful for the treatment of systemic fungal infections in parrots that are particularly sensitive to other antifungal agents. Pharmacokinetic studies for oral administration of terbinafine in redtailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) and penguins (Spheniscus demersus) have suggested dosages of 22 mg/kg per day and 15 mg/kg per day, respectively, to achieve estimated therapeutic plasma concentrations of 1-4 lg/mL.…”

“…12 There is little guidance regarding recommended particle size of nebulized drugs in avian species, although in a study 23 in chickens, results showed smaller particles (1 lm) were more likely to be deposited into the lungs after nebulization, whereas large particles (20 lm) were more likely to be deposited into the thoracic air sacs. No studies have evaluated nebulized terbinafine in any species, to our knowledge, and no studies evaluating the pharmacokinetics of any medication administered by nebulization are available in parrots.…”

Dental Mold: A Novel Formulation to Treat Common Dental Disorders

“…The polymeric mold should have an appropriate adhesiveness so that it may be easily fixed on the affected tooth and can be removed easily whenever necessary. Amoxicillin trihydrate, a β-lactam antibiotic, inhibits the cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains of the cell wall of Grampositive and Gram-negative bacteria (6). The drug has been used to treat dental microbial plaques and periodontal diseases as bacterial infection (7,8).…”