Phenoptosis: Programmed Death of an Organism

Empirical Validation of a Hypothesis of the Hormetic Selective Forces Driving the Evolution of Longevity Regulation Mechanisms

“…One group of these theories is based on the concept of programmed aging; these theories are trying to explain how the evolutionary force actively limits organismal lifespan at an age unique to each species (Skulachev, 1999a,b, 2001, 2002a,b; Longo et al, 2005; Skulachev and Longo, 2005; Severin et al, 2008; Goldsmith, 2011, 2012, 2014; Mitteldorf, 2012; Trindade et al, 2013). Another group of evolutionary aging theories is based on the notion of non-programmed aging; these theories are attempting to rationalize how lack of the evolutionary force passively limits organismal lifespan at an age characteristic of each species (Ljubuncic and Reznick, 2009; Goldsmith, 2011, 2012, 2014; Mitteldorf, 2012; Trindade et al, 2013).…”

“…Moreover, all evolutionary theories of programmed aging posit that the evolutionary force actively limits organismal lifespan at an age unique to each species (Skulachev, 1999a,b, 2001, 2002a,b; Longo et al, 2005; Skulachev and Longo, 2005; Severin et al, 2008; Ljubuncic and Reznick, 2009; Mitteldorf, 2010, 2012; Goldsmith, 2011, 2012, 2014; Trindade et al, 2013). All these theories are based on the premise that natural selection resulted in preferential reproduction of those members of various species that have evolved certain mechanisms for limiting their lifespans in a species-specific fashion and upon reaching a species-specific age (Libertini, 1988; Skulachev, 1997, 1999a,b, 2001; Longo et al, 2005; Goldsmith, 2008, 2011, 2012, 2014).…”

“…All these theories are based on the premise that natural selection resulted in preferential reproduction of those members of various species that have evolved certain mechanisms for limiting their lifespans in a species-specific fashion and upon reaching a species-specific age (Libertini, 1988; Skulachev, 1997, 1999a,b, 2001; Longo et al, 2005; Goldsmith, 2008, 2011, 2012, 2014). This is because natural selection limits organismal lifespan at an age unique to each species by actively retaining only those alleles of pleiotropic genes that increase early-life fitness and thus reduce fitness at old age (Williams, 1957; Kirkwood, 1977; Kirkwood and Holliday, 1979; Kirkwood and Austad, 2000; Goldsmith, 2011, 2012, 2014).…”

Protection from epidemics is a driving force for evolution of lifespan setpoints

“…Our model predicts that this is a pathogen-triggered suicidal phenomenon that should be also true for other infections. We predict that in mole rats the function of pathogen control was shifted from aging to a mechanism of systemic apoptosis ( phenoptosis 56 ), and thus removing the selection pressure towards shorter lifespan. p Recent works showed that two huge arctic animals, bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) 57 and Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) 58 have extraordinarily long lifespan of ~200 and ~400 years respectively.…”

Empirical verification of evolutionary theories of aging

“…Noteworthy, contemporary evolutionary theories of programmed aging and age-related death postulate that organisms of all species possess mechanisms that have been evolved to actively limit their lifespans at a species-specific age [5, 6, 7–9, 12, 15, 17, 19–21]. In contrast, evolutionary theories of non-programmed aging assume that such mechanisms cannot exist, just because organismal lifespan is limited at a species-specific age passively - i.e.…”