Phthalate metabolite exposures among immigrants living in the United States: findings from NHANES, 1999–2014

Abstract

Phthalates exposure has been linked to multiple health risks, and US immigrants may have different exposures to phthalates due to lifestyle differences. Urinary concentrations of eight phthalate metabolites (mono-ethyl phthalate [MEP], mono-n-butyl phthalate [MnBP], mono-isobutyl phthalate [MiBP], mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate [MCPP], mono-benzyl phthalate [MBzP], mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate [MEHP], mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate [MEHHP], mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate [MEOHP]) were measured in 10318 US-born and 3511 foreign-born individuals from NHANES 1999-2014. Using multivariate adjusted linear regression, we assessed whether phthalate metabolite levels differed by nativity in the whole population, within racial/ethnic groups, and by years in the US. We also tested whether immigrant demographics predicted phthalate metabolite levels. In fully adjusted models, MEP, MnBP, and MiBP were significantly higher, and MBzP significantly lower, among immigrants than US-born participants. Among immigrants, MnBP and MiBP significantly declined with longer time in the US (Ptrend = 0.029 and Ptrend =0.039, respectively), while MCPP and MBzP significantly rose (Ptrend = 0.019 and Ptrend =0.043, respectively). Results within each racial/ethnic group were consistent with the whole population. Among immigrants, women had significantly higher metabolite levels than men (all p<0.01), and MEP, MnBP, and MCPP differed by race/ethnicity. Due to higher phthalate exposures, immigrants may be especially vulnerable to phthalate-associated health problems.

Acculturation and endocrine disrupting chemical-associated personal care product use among US-based foreign-born Chinese women of reproductive age

“…Studies have consistently shown that changes in EDC concentrations and disease vary with length of US residence, although the direction of that change differs depending on the metabolite. One study [ 12 ] found higher MEP and MBP phthalate metabolite concentrations in foreign-born Asians (geometric mean: 22.8 and 8.4 ng/mL, respectively) than in US-born Asians (geometric mean: 16.9 and 4.4 ng/mL, respectively). These metabolite concentrations steadily decreased with longer US residence for immigrants and were almost indistinguishable to levels in US-born individuals for immigrants who resided in the US for over 30 years.…”

“…EDC exposure and women’s reproductive health is understudied and not characterized well in Asian Americans, much less Chinese Americans. In studies that do include Asian Americans, their risk of GDM is particularly high, but urinary phthalate levels have actually been found to be lower in Asians than Blacks, Hispanics, and often times Whites as well [ 12 , 46 ]. Still, we see urinary MEP and MBP concentrations, which are related to GDM, change by length of US residence [ 48 ].…”

“…Length of US residence was determined with the question, “If born outside of the U.S. how long have you lived in the U.S.?”. Length of US residence is a widely used measure of acculturation [ 28 , 29 ], and participants who had resided in the US for at least 10 years were considered to have long-term US residence based on previous studies [ 12 , 30 ]. Age at US entry was calculated by subtracting the length of US residence from self-reported age at the time of the survey and was dichotomized based on the median age (24 years).…”

“…Environmental factors, including exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), may play an important role in obstetric risks. Recent work showed higher mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) and monobutyl phthalate (MBP) urinary concentrations in foreign-born Asians than in US-born Asians [ 12 ]. Moreover, MEP and MBP concentrations in foreign-born Asians became more similar to that in US-born Asians with longer US residence.…”

Toxic trespass

“…Dealing with toxic trespass brings to light disputes between laypeople and professionals, citizens and governments, and among professionals, because the consequences of exposure are often poorly understood and because environmentally induced diseases are among the most prominent types of "contested illnesses" (Brown 2007). Toxic trespass often disproportionately impacts environmental justice (EJ) communities, because polluting facilities are concentrated in low-income communities and communities of color, and exposure to many chemicals through consumer products is also higher for marginalized populations (Helm et al 2018;Mitro et al 2018). Precisely because environmental diseases are so common in daily life and all aspects of the economy, these diseases have become highly politicized and have spurred much social movement activism.…”