Phyconomy: the extensive cultivation of seaweeds, their sustainability and economic value, with particular reference to important lessons to be learned and transferred from the practice of eucheumatoid farming

Abstract

Kappaphycus and Eucheuma, known collectively as 'eucheumatoids', are two related genera of red seaweeds which currently lead the rankings for volume of global production of farmed macroalgae. Since 2009, the combined cultivated volume of these carrageenophytes overtook that of the brown seaweeds Laminaria (Saccharina) and Undaria for global production tonnages, according to statistics of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The Southeast Asian region, particularly Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Tanzania, and East Africa are the major producers of eucheumatoid biomass. Despite several success stories of red seaweed cultivation and the economic and socioeconomic value of their ecosystem services, there remain a number of salutary lessons to be learned from 'agronomic' practices applicable to their extensive cultivation. These case studies should be further developed, analysed, and adopted as best-practice recommendations for future socioeconomic prosperity, as well as both economic and environmental sustainability. In this review, we propose the use of the term 'phyconomy' (i.e. large-scale production of marine macroalgae for economic and industrial purposes) as an alternative to the term agronomy (i.e. terrestrial plant production).

An analysis of the current status and future of biosecurity frameworks for the Indonesian seaweed industry

“…This outbreak has since continued and has led to a significant decline in several formerly productive areas in North Sulawesi, North Moluccas, South and East Kalimantan, West Papua and Gorontalo between 2011 and 2015 (Fitrian 2015; Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) 2017a). In addition to direct loss resulting from disease, the widespread practice of repetitive vegetative propagation has had an impact on seedling vigour, resulting in reduced crop quality, quantity and ability to resist diseases (Dawes et al 1993;Halling et al 2013;Yong et al 2014;Hayashi et al 2017;Reddy et al 2017;Hurtado et al 2019).…”

“…The introduction of new species to combat the loss of vigour and the transportation of live seedlings or seed stock is often practiced to support the development of seaweed aquaculture (Bindu and Levine 2011;Valderrama et al 2015;Hayashi et al 2017;Hwang et al 2018;Hurtado et al 2019). However, these practices are well documented as major pathways for introducing and facilitating the spread of diseases and pests in seaweed aquaculture worldwide (Sulu et al 2004;Largo et al 2017;Loureiro et al 2017;Badis et al 2019;Ward et al 2019).…”

“…For example, the documented infection of Porphyra/Pyropia in Europe and Asia with the pathogenic oomycete Olpidiopsis (Kim et al 2014;Badis et al 2019;Ward et al 2019) and outbreaks of the epiphytic pests Neosiphonia and Polysiphonia spp. in Kappaphycus seedlings are both attributed to trading as a pathway for pest introductions (Hurtado et al 2019).…”

Seaweed breeding programs and progress in eastern Asian countries

“…In most cases, this has resulted from using a small inbred parental population or poorly selected parental plants (e.g. Hurtado et al 2019). Species like S. japonica or U. pinnatifida have high reproductive capacity, with one individual releasing millions of spores which can give rise to millions of individual offspring.…”

Saved by seaweeds: phyconomic contributions in times of crises

“…Many more women than men are involved in the farming of seaweeds in shallow, intertidal basins. These ‘seaweed women’ have made significant phyconomic advances in the sustainability of seaweed farming for more than four decades and their dedication, patience and resilience illustrate tenacity in the face of crises (Bay-Larsen et al 2014 ; Periyasamy et al 2014 ; Msuya and Hurtado 2017 ; Hurtado et al 2019 ).…”