Phycotoxin-Enriched Sea Spray Aerosols: Methods, Mechanisms, and Human Exposure

Abstract

To date, few studies have examined the role of sea spray aerosols (SSAs) in human exposure to harmful and beneficial marine compounds. Two groups of phycotoxins (brevetoxins and ovatoxins) have been reported to induce respiratory syndromes during harmful algal blooms. The aerosolization and coastal air concentrations of other common marine phycotoxins have, however, never been examined. This study provides the first (experimental) evidence and characterization of the aerosolization of okadaic acid (OA), homoyessotoxin, and dinophysistoxin-1 using seawater spiked with toxic algae combined with the realistic SSA production in a marine aerosol reference tank (MART). The potential for aerosolization of these phycotoxins was highlighted by their 78-to 1769-fold enrichment in SSAs relative to the subsurface water. To obtain and support these results, we first developed an analytical method for the determination of phycotoxin concentrations in SSAs, which showed good linearity (R 2 > 0.99), recovery (85.3− 101.8%), and precision (RSDs ≤ 17.2%). We also investigated natural phycotoxin air concentrations by means of in situ SSA sampling with concurrent aerosolization experiments using natural seawater in the MART. This approach allowed us to indirectly quantify the (harmless) magnitude of OA concentrations (0.6−51 pg m −3 ) in Belgium's coastal air. Overall, this study provides new insights into the enriched aerosolization of marine compounds and proposes a framework to assess their airborne exposure and effects on human health.

Sea Spray Aerosols Contain the Major Component of Human Lung Surfactant

“…This can be concluded based the metaanalysis of Lewis and Schwartz, 5 which shows (Figure S10) that the 10th and 90th percentile of WS seawind in our study would generate [Na + ] coastal air on an open sea of ±4 to ±9 μg m −3 . In addition, a previous field study 33 where we sampled SSAs at a smaller distance (50 m) from the high-water mark also showed slightly higher [Na + ] coastal air from 0.23 to 12 μg m −3 .…”

“…It should be noted that this facilitating effect of marine surfactants like DPPC could also hold true for toxic chemicals. It has been shown, for example, that some marine phycotoxins can be found in coastal air 33,86,87 and induce respiratory syndromes during harmful algal blooms (HABs). 88−90 Such harmful exposures to aerosolized phycotoxins are rather rare events, requiring a combination of favorable weather conditions for SSA production and a severe toxin-producing HAB.…”

“…The DPPC extraction method used was based on the dedicated extraction protocols of Ullah et al (DPPC from human aerosols on polymer filters) and Van Acker et al (phycotoxins from SSAs on quartz fiber filters). In short, filters were inserted in glass tubes and spiked with 2.4 ng of dimyristoylglycerophosphocholine (DMPC; Avanti Polar Lipids) as an internal standard. , The filters were subsequently eluted three times using 4 mL of analytical grade methanol and a 5 min sonication and 20 s vortex step (per elution).…”

Indirect Impact of Eutrophication on Occurrence, Air–Water Exchange, and Vertical Sinking Fluxes of Antibiotics in a Subtropical River

“…These antibiotics exhibit ionic properties in the elevated pH, which is indirectly induced by the eutrophication in the Pearl River. Organic species originating from the ocean can enter the atmosphere via two principal mechanisms: the generation of sea spray aerosols through bubble bursting and wind shear, − along with the release of volatile organic compounds from the ocean surface. − Studies have illustrated that phytoplankton biomass significantly influences aerosol particles generation through wave breaking in both sea and lake environments, leading to an enrichment of matter at the air–water interface. − The aerosolization of phytoplankton cells and fragments occurs across a size spectrum ranging from fine (<2.5 μm) to coarse (2.5–10 μm), with microalgal abundance in the atmosphere varying from 10 –4 to 10 4 cells m –3 . , This work revealed that antibiotics transfer to the atmosphere primarily through aerosolization, controlled by phytoplankton biomass. By linearly plotting the concentrations in aerosol-phase concentrations of antibiotics C air against the biomass, negative correlations between C air and phytoplankton biomass were observed in general (Figures a).…”

Rapid Biotic and Abiotic Transformation of Toxins produced by Ostreopsis. cf. ovata

“…Indeed, sea spray aerosols form from breaking waves, bursting bubbles and wind interaction with the ocean surface. Therefore, their organic content is mainly determined by the molecular composition of the upper water column [9][10][11]. In controlled systems, a natural and continuous extracellular release of OVTXs occurs throughout the growth of O. cf.…”