Physical Activity Disparities in Heterosexual and Sexual Minority Youth Ages 12–22 Years Old: Roles of Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Athletic Self-Esteem

Abstract

Background Physical activity is an important health determinant. Little is known about sexual orientation differences in physical activity and their psychosocial determinants. Purpose To examine adolescent and young adult hours/week of moderate/vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and team sports participation by sexual orientation and investigate contributions of gender nonconformity and low athletic self-esteem to possible sexual orientation differences. Methods Analysis of data from 5,272 males and 7,507 females from 1999-2005 waves of the US Growing Up Today Study (ages 12-22 years). Results Sexual minorities (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, mostly heterosexual) reported 1.21-2.62 hours/week less MVPA (p's<0.01) and were 46%-76% less likely to participate in team sports than same-gender heterosexuals. Gender nonconformity and athletic self-esteem accounted for 46%-100% of sexual orientation MVPA differences. Conclusions Physical activity contexts should be modified to welcome sexual minority males and females. Targeting intolerance of gender nonconformity and fostering athletic self-esteem may mitigate sexual orientation MVPA disparities.

181. Gender Expression Associated With BMI in a Prospective Cohort Study of U.S. Adolescents

“…Evidence is accumulating that these messages carry with them health risks in myriad domains. [9][10][11][12]32 With the present study, it is clear that conformity to masculinity ideals confers risk of elevated BMI in both sexes and, for males in particular, more rapid BMI gains in adolescence. While our study examined a wide range of known predictors of BMI in youth, our results indicated that these exposures accounted for a relatively small proportion of the pronounced gender-expression group differences in BMI.…”

“…21 Furthermore, recent evidence implicates societal pressures on young people to conform to socially accepted expressions of masculinity and femininity in a range of health damaging behaviors, 9-11 including weightrelated behaviors. 11,12,32 Nevertheless, to our knowledge, this is the first prospective cohort study examining the relationship between gender expression and BMI in adolescence. Our findings indicate that socially assigned gender expression is a powerful predictor of BMI.…”

“…For instance, in the Growing Up Today Study (GUTS), a national cohort of U.S. youth, researchers found that gender conforming girls were more likely to endorse trying to look like people in the media than gender nonconforming girls, and gender conforming boys were found to be more sports involved than gender nonconforming boys. 11,12 Because thinness is not consistent with dominant cultural standards of masculinity, youth who conform to masculinity norms may be more likely than other youth to engage in obesogenic behaviors, such as fast food consumption, 13 overeating, 14 and sedentary behaviors (e.g., TV viewing/sedentary screen time). 15 While gender expression and sexual orientation are distinct constructs, it is important to note that the association between gender expression and sexual orientation is well documented, 16 including in the GUTS cohort.…”

Gender Conformity and Use of Laxatives and Muscle-Building Products in Adolescents and Young Adults

“…For example, gender nonconformity among sexual minority youth may elicit homophobic victimization, which may then mediate negative health outcomes and behaviors (eg, depression or maladaptive coping). 21,[34][35][36] In the current study, The denominators used to calculate percentages for age-specifi c prevalence vary because of the repeated-measures design and missing data on survey waves. The number of participants and repeated-measures observations refer to the data included in the analysis sample.…”

“…18,19 Health behaviors, especially those related to appearance, may be a way of embodying or establishing adherence to gender norms. 17,20,21 Because appearance ideals for girls and women center on thinness, whereas appearance ideals for boys and men focus on muscularity, the likelihood of using products to modify weight, shape, or appearance may be associated with overall gender differences in conformity to femininity and masculinity norms. [22][23][24] Laxative use to maintain or lose weight, particularly among girls and women, may be connected to greater conformity to appearance norms associated with femininity, and muscle-building product use, particularly among boys and men, may be connected to greater conformity to appearance norms associated with masculinity.…”