Physiological and Dietary Determinants of Iron Status in Spanish Vegetarians

Abstract

Vegetarian diets may compromise iron status, as they provide non-haem iron which has low bioavailability. Spanish lacto-ovo vegetarians (n = 49) and vegans (n = 55) were recruited and haematological and biochemical iron parameters were analysed. Food and supplements consumption, body composition, physical activity, menstrual blood losses and hormonal contraceptive use were assessed. Four groups were studied: Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), iron depletion (ferritin <15 ng/mL), iron deficiency (ferritin ≥15 to ≤30 ng/mL), and iron sufficiency (ferritin >30 ng/mL). IDA was uncommon (n = 5, 4.8%), 27.9% of participants were iron-depleted, and 30.8% were iron-deficient. Serum ferritin was lower in women than men (p < 0.001) and IDA and iron depleted individuals were all women. There were no differences attributed to diet type, time being vegetarian or physical activity. The menstrual period length was negatively associated with transferrin saturation ( = −0.364, p = 0.001) and hormonal contraceptive use ( = −0.276, p = 0.014). Iron supplements were consumed most frequently by IDA and iron-deficient subjects (p = 0.031). Conclusions: Iron status did not vary between lacto-ovo vegetarians and vegans and there was not an influence of the time following a vegetarian diet. Although men were iron-sufficient, iron deficiency was frequent in women, who should apply strategies to increase iron bioavailability, especially if they experience intense menstrual blood losses.

Vegetarianos e deficiência de micronutrientes: uma revisão da literatura

“…Os autores Gallego-Narbón, Zapatera & Vaquero (2019), demonstram em seu estudo que a deficiência de micronutrientes em vegetarianos é mais comum entre as mulheres, principalmente a deficiência de ferro, e isso se dá por meio do período menstrual no qual a mulher precisa de um aporte maior de ferro, ratificando que no grupo de risco para carências nutricionais, em se tratando do estilo de vida vegetariano, estão as gestantes, mulheres e vegetarianos estritos.…”

Nutritional Status and the Influence of the Vegan Diet on the Gut Microbiota and Human Health

“…This can be counteracted by consuming ascorbic acid (citrus, strawberries, kiwi), a component necessary for the absorption of non-heme iron [1,50]. Legumes, beans, whole grains, integral cereals, dark-green leafy vegetables, fruits, seeds, and nuts can be used as sources of iron [16,30,61]. Zinc acts as a catalyst in iron metabolism and is not as easily absorbed from plant sources as it is from animal products, which usually supply half of the zinc intake [4].…”

“…In contrast, the constantly increasing prevalence of vegetarianism and veganism within North Americans has been reported to be as high as 5% and 2%, respectively [8], whereas the prevalence of veganism among US individuals with specific religious beliefs was reported to be 7.6% [13]. Other studies involving countries worldwide have yielded variable prevalence rates of vegetarianism within the general population: 0.77% in China [14], 0.79% in Italy [15], 1.5% in Spain [16], 3.3% in Germany [11], 3.8% in Norway [17], 4.1% in Finland [18], from 3% to 5% in Latvia [19], up to 11.2% in Australia [20], 33% in South Asia [21], and from 4.8% to 15.6% in Sweden [17]. In addition, vegetarian diets have also become popular due to potential health benefits among adolescents and young adults, especially females; in a recent report, prevalence rates from 8% to 37% and from 1% to 12% in female and male Australian teenagers were quoted, respectively [22].…”

<p>Iron in the General Population and Specificities in Older Adults: Metabolism, Causes and Consequences of Decrease or Overload, and Biological Assessment</p>

“…5,13,17,[51][52][53][54][55][56] anemia can lead to a decrease in physical activity. 7 This can be dramatic in OAs due to the preexisting negative impact of aging on physical activity. Indeed, it is known that physical activity decreases the risk of motor function decline, hence its importance in maintaining physical autonomy.…”

“…The consequences include anemia, asthenia (even without anemia), occurrence of cognitive disorders, worsening of neurocognitive disorder (Alzheimer's disease or other), decrease of immune defense causing infections, osteoporosis, and decrease in physical activity. [3][4][5][6][7][8][9] In addition, ID is a marker of the severity of heart failure, which is a frequent condition in OAs. 10 Although the role of iron in human body is well known, there have been recent advances in the understanding of iron metabolism, including its absorption pathways and precise regulation.…”