Physiological Aspects of the Requirement for Sodium in Mammals

Michell, A.R.

doi:10.1079/nrr19890012

Cited by 39 publications

(25 citation statements)

References 65 publications

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“…4,7 Most US adults consume sodium far in excess of physiological need and guideline recommendations. [1][2][3]70 Most of this excess comes from the addition of sodium during food processing. 33,71 A progressive reduction in the amount of sodium added to food products represents one of the most appealing and cost-effective strategies available to meet the AHA goal for sodium intake in the community.…”

Section: Nutritional Adequacymentioning

confidence: 99%

Sodium, Blood Pressure, and Cardiovascular Disease

Whelton¹,

Appel²,

Sacco³

et al. 2012

Circulation

386

138

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Abstract-Recent reports of selected observational studies and a meta-analysis have stirred controversy and have become the impetus for calls to abandon recommendations for reduced sodium intake by the US general population. A detailed review of these studies documents substantial methodological concerns that limit the usefulness of these studies in setting, much less reversing, dietary recommendations. Indeed, the evidence base supporting recommendations for reduced sodium intake in the general population remains robust and persuasive. The American Heart Association is committed to improving the health of all Americans through implementation of national goals for health promotion and disease prevention, including its recommendation to reduce dietary sodium intake to Ͻ1500 mg/d. (Circulation. 2012;126:2880-2889.)Key Words: AHA Scientific Statements Ⅲ sodium Ⅲ diet Ⅲ prevention I n almost every country that has established guidelines for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and stroke, national health agencies and professional societies recommend a reduction in dietary sodium as a means to lower blood pressure (BP) and to prevent CVD and stroke. The American Heart Association (AHA) currently recommends a sodium intake Ͻ1500 mg/d for the entire US population. 1 The US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services joint 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans calls for no more than 1500 mg/d in AfricanAmericans, people Ͼ51 years of age, and people with hypertension, diabetes mellitus, or chronic kidney disease, and no more than 2300 mg/d in all others. 2 Guideline recommendations far exceed adequate intake for sodium in some age groups, especially in children; the adequate intake for children aged 1 to 3 years is 1000 mg/d, and for children aged 4 to 8 years is 1200 mg/d. 3 The scientific rationale for the AHA recommendation was documented in an AHA presidential advisory published in 2011. 4 The principal basis for the recommendation was the strength of the evidence relating excess sodium intake to high BP, CVD, and stroke and the capacity of reduced intake of sodium to prevent and treat hypertension and to reduce the risk of adverse CVD and stroke events. High BP, both prehypertension and hypertension, is a leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality worldwide. 5 Excess sodium intake has also been linked to kidney stones, asthma, osteoporosis, and gastric cancer. 3,6 Various local, state, federal, and global initiatives are focused on efforts to meet sodium reduction guidelines. 7 Even a modest reduction in sodium intake is likely to result in substan-The opinions expressed in this article are not necessarily those of the editors. The American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outside relationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit a Discl...

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Section: Nutritional Adequacymentioning

confidence: 99%

Sodium, Blood Pressure, and Cardiovascular Disease

Whelton¹,

Appel²,

Sacco³

et al. 2012

Circulation

386

138

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…It is unlikely that the maintenance requirement for sodium exceeds 0 5 mmol kg-1 day-1 in mammals and it is probably well below 0 1 mmol kg-1 day-1 in sheep (Michell, 1989). Clearly (Fig.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 94%

“…The basal diet comprised 0 5 kg oats, 0 3 kg straw and 0-2 kg bran, (Michell, 1989), the basal sodium intake (0 5 mmol kg-') was nutritionally generous, let alone adequate.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Differences between sheep excreting sodium predominantly in their urine or in their faeces: the effect of changes in sodium intake

Michell¹,

Moss²

1992

Experimental Physiology

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SUMMARYSheep receiving a total of about 31 mmol day-1 (0-5 mmol kg-') of sodium were classified according to the predominant route of sodium excretion; urinary (U) or faecal (F). U sheep had a greater water turnover than F sheep; their intake was 41 % higher and they produced 133 % more urine but there was little difference in faecal water loss. Most faecal sodium was readily exchangeable with water in both groups. When sodium intake was reduced by 80 % (to 6 mmol day-1; 0'1 mmol kg-'), the reduction in total sodium excretion was equally effective in F sheep and U sheep after 48 h and after 2 weeks the overall losses of sodium were smaller in F sheep. On sodium intakes close to requirement (0-1 mmol kg-' or less) the majority of the sheep excreted most of their sodium in faeces and did so on intakes up to 0 5 mmol kg-' day-'.

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“…Recently, the Northern Manhattan Study demonstrated that only 12% of subjects met the AHA-recommended level of sodium consumption of less than1500 mg/day, and high sodium intake was associated with an increased risk of stroke independent of vascular risk factors [3]. In the light of physiological aspects, sodium requirement would not exceed 0.6 mmol/kg per day in mature mammals, and the daily human maintenance requirement is probably below 40 mmol (approximately 2.3 g of NaCl) per day [4]. Actually, the daily intake of sodium from Paleolithic hunter-gatherer diet, estimated to be 690 mg (approximately 1.7 g of NaCl), would have been markedly below the lowest estimate of current intake (5.8–17.3 g of NaCl) [5].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Excess Salt Increases Infarct Size Produced by Photothrombotic Distal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

Yao

Nabika

2014

PLoS ONE

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Cerebral circulation is known to be vulnerable to high salt loading. However, no study has investigated the effects of excess salt on focal ischemic brain injury. After 14 days of salt loading (0.9% saline) or water, spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) were subjected to photothrombotic middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), and infarct volume was determined at 48 h after MCAO: albumin and hemoglobin contents in discrete brain regions were also determined in SHR. Salt loading did not affect blood pressure levels in SHR and WKY. After MCAO, regional cerebral blood flow (CBF), determined with two ways of laser-Doppler flowmetry (one-point measurement or manual scanning), was more steeply decreased in the salt-loaded group than in the control group. In SHR/Izm, infarct volume in the salt-loaded group was 112±27 mm3, which was significantly larger than 77±12 mm3 in the control group (p = 0.002), while the extents of blood-brain barrier disruption (brain albumin and hemoglobin levels) were not affected by excess salt. In WKY, salt loading did not significantly increase infarct size. These results show the detrimental effects of salt loading on intra-ischemic CBF and subsequent brain infarction produced by phototrhombotic MCAO in hypertensive rats.

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Physiological Aspects of the Requirement for Sodium in Mammals

Cited by 39 publications

References 65 publications

Sodium, Blood Pressure, and Cardiovascular Disease

Sodium, Blood Pressure, and Cardiovascular Disease

Differences between sheep excreting sodium predominantly in their urine or in their faeces: the effect of changes in sodium intake

Excess Salt Increases Infarct Size Produced by Photothrombotic Distal Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

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