“…Before discussing robot controllers, a vital issue is to measure the moving organ position in real time. To this end, many image-based sensors have been widely used in research such as high-speed camera/laparoscopy (Nakajima et al, 2014 ), X-ray fluoroscopy (Ma et al, 2020 ), computed tomography (CT) (Su et al, 2013 ), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Yang et al, 2014 ), positron emission tomography (PET) (Bettinardi et al, 2013 ), and ultrasound imaging (US) (Bowthorpe and Tavakoli, 2016a , b ; Diodato et al, 2018 ). To get performance, hybrid imaging systems are also developed to measure precise organ motion including MRI/US imaging (Celicanin et al, 2018 ), MRI/CT imaging (Neumann et al, 2017 ), PET/CT imaging (Bettinardi et al, 2013 ; Pepin et al, 2014 ), and PET/MRI (Kolbitsch et al, 2018 ).…”