Phytohormones and Pheromones in the Phycology Literature: Benchmarking of Data-Set and Developing Critical Tools of Biotechnological Implications for Commercial Aquaculture Industry

Abstract

Plant hormones and pheromones are natural compounds involved in the growth, development, and reproductive processes. There is a plethora of studies on hormones and pheromones in terrestrial plants, but such investigations are few in the phycological literature. There are striking similarities between the chemical diversity, biosynthetic processes, roles, and actions of hormones and pheromones in both higher angiospermic plants and algae. However, there are substantial knowledge gaps in understanding the genes responsible for hormone biosynthesis and regulation in algae. Efforts have focused on identifying the genes and proteins involved in these processes, shedding light on lateral gene transfer and evolutionary outcomes. This comprehensive review contributes to benchmarking data and essential biotechnological tools, particularly for the aquaculture industry where seaweed is economically crucial. Advanced techniques in plant hormones and pheromones can revolutionize commercial aquaculture by using synthetic analogs to enhance growth, yield, and reproductive control, thereby addressing seasonal limitations and enabling sustainable seedling production. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive review that focuses on biosynthetic pathways and modes of action (of five plant hormones and five pheromones), roles (of 11 hormones and 29 pheromones), and extraction protocols (of four hormones and six pheromones) reported in the phycological domain.

Hydroponics with Microalgae and Cyanobacteria: Emerging Trends and Opportunities in Modern Agriculture

“…Several auxin biosynthetic enzymes documented in higher plants, such as C-S lyase and nitrilases, have also been observed in Ectocarpus siliculosus , Ostreococcus lucimarinus , Micromonas pusilla , Chlorella variabilis , Volvox carteri , etc. [ 92 ]. Additionally, cyanobacterial genera, such as Nostoc sp., Chlorogloeopsis sp., Calothrix sp., Plectonema sp., Gloeothece sp., Anabaena sp., Cylindrospermum sp., and Anabaenopsis sp.…”

“…This enzyme is closely related to the late-stage enzymes involved in GA synthesis in A. thaliana . This suggests that the GA synthesis mechanism in algae could be similar to that of higher plants [ 92 ].…”

“…In H. pluvialis, ACC oxidase is activated by Co 2+ , Mn 2+ , and Ag 2+ and inhibited by Cu 2+ and salicylhydroxamic acid. On the other hand, in plants, this enzyme is activated by Fe 2+ , Mn 2+ , or Cu 2+ and inhibited by Co 2+ [ 92 ].…”

“…Subsequently, xanthoxin is produced by the oxidative reduction in 9-cis-violaxanthin and/or 9-cis-neoxanthin, which is catalyzed by the enzyme 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED). Finally, there are three possible pathways for the last stage of ABA biosynthesis, from xanthoxin to ABA formation, such as ABA aldehyde (as shown in Figure 6 ), xanthoxinic acid, or abscisic alcohol, which can be intermediate compounds formed before ABA synthesis [ 92 ].…”