Since the original construction of diazotrophic
Escherichia coli
by conjugal transfer of
nif
genes from
Klebsiella pneumoniae
in 1972, the manipulation of
nif
genes into alien prokaryotic backgrounds has become routine: much of the basic genetics of the
K. pneumoniae
nif
cluster was elucidated in an
E. coli
background. Gene transfers to new species and genera can give new information regarding the stability of
nif
genes and, particularly, conditions for their expression; recipients in which
nif
is partly expressed, or not expressed at all, are especially useful. Appropriate examples are discussed. New diazotrophic prokaryotes show little promise for practical exploitation but their construction should give forewarning of problems to be expected in the construction of diazotrophic eukaryotes, as well as hints concerning the ecology and evolution of diazotrophy.