Platinum Group Metals: A Review of Resources, Production and Usage with a Focus on Catalysts

Abstract

The major applications of PGMs are as catalysts in automotive industry, petroleum refining, environmental (gas remediation), industrial chemical production (e.g., ammonia production, fine chemicals), electronics, and medical fields. As the next generation energy technologies for hydrogen production, such as electrolysers and fuel cells for stationary and transport applications, become mature, the demand for PGMs is expected to further increase. Reserves and annual production of Ru, Rh, Pd, Ir, and Pt have been determined and reported. Based on currently available resources, there is around 200 years lifetime based on current demand for all PGMs, apart from Pd, which may be closer to 100 years. Annual primary production of 190 t/a for Pt and 217 t/a for Pd, in combination with recycling of 65.4 t/a for Pt and 97.2 t/a for Pd, satisfies current demand. By far, the largest demand for PGMs is for all forms of catalysis, with the largest demand in auto catalysis. In fact, the biggest driver of demand and price for Pt, Pd, and Rh, in particular, is auto emission regulation, which has driven auto-catalyst design. Recovery of PGMs through recycling is generally good, but some catalytic processes, particularly auto-catalysis, result in significant dissipation. In the US, about 70% of the recycling stream from the end-of-life vehicles is a significant source of global secondary PGMs recovered from spent auto-catalyst. The significant use of PGMs in the large global auto industry is likely to continue, but the long-term transition towards electric vehicles will alter demand profiles.

Maximizing noble metal utilization in solid catalysts by control of nanoparticle location

“…N oble metals (NMs) are widely used in a variety of commercial and emerging technologies, including catalytic converters in automobiles; electrocatalysts in hydrogen fuel cells; and catalysts for petroleum, biomass, and waste conversion (1)(2)(3)(4)(5). Increasing demand for NMs in these applications is driving approaches that make more efficient use of NMs (6)(7)(8)(9), including so-called single-atom catalysts (SACs) in which isolated single metal atoms or ions are stabilized by the support (10)(11)(12)(13). However, strong metal-support interactions often lead to limited reducibility and in some cases low reactivity.…”

Electrochemical Metal Recycling: Recovery of Palladium from Solution and In Situ Fabrication of Palladium-Carbon Catalysts via Impact Electrochemistry

“…Platinum group metals (PGMs) are significant critical metals because of their wide range of applications, most notably as catalysts. − Palladium is a common catalyst, utilized in many applications and processes such as environmentally important automotive catalytic converters, future energy use in hydrogen storage and production, and large-scale chemical synthesis. − The Suzuki coupling reaction for example is an industrially important reaction frequently used in pharmaceutical drug synthesis, the formulation of agrochemicals, and polymer production. − …”

In situ observation of highly oxidized Ru species in Ru/CeO2 catalyst under propane oxidation

“…19 They are considered promising for catalytic oxidation of VOCs on a large scale. 20,21 The type of support is another important factor determining the catalytic activity of the supported metal. In hydrocarbon oxidation reactions, the prospective support for Ru is cerium dioxide (CeO 2 ).…”