The 2008 economic crisis and the events following the Arab Spring in 2011, including the refugee flows of 2015, have had a huge impact on international migration in the EU and on integration processes (Fischer-Souan, 2019). Relations between member states and the meaning of European citizenship have been heavily affected, with implications for internal mobility and migratory movements (Basso, 2014; Bonifazi & Marini, 2014; Lafleur & Stanek, 2017). Mediterranean countries, which were particularly hit by a collapse of economic growth and very high youth unemployment, have returned to a previous status of "semi-peripheries" around core countries, such as Germany, France, the UK and Sweden and have once again become countries that export labour migrants (Toma