Poly(ε-caprolactone)/Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Blend from Fused Deposition Modeling as Potential Cartilage Scaffolds

Abstract

The scaffolds of poly(ε-caprolactone)/poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PCL/PHBV) blends were fabricated from fused deposition modeling. From indirect cytotoxicity testing based on mouse fibroblasts, all scaffolds with various blend ratios were nontoxic to cells. The surface-treated scaffold with a blend ratio of 25/75 PCL/PHBV exhibited the highest proliferation of porcine chondrocytes and total glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) after 21 days of culture. The scaffolds with a blend ratio of 25/75 with local pores (LP) were prepared from FDM along with a salt leaching technique using NaCl as porogens. The effect of NaOH in surface treatment on the biological property of scaffolds was investigated. The scaffolds with LP and with 1 M NaOH surface treatment exhibited the highest proliferation of cells and total GAGs after 28 days of culture. The degradation behaviors of the scaffolds were studied. The nonsurface treated, surface treated without LP, and surface treated with LP scaffolds were degraded in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) for 30 days at 37°C and 50°C for nonenzymatic condition and at 37°C for enzymatic condition. The surface treated with LP scaffold showed the highest amount of weight loss, followed by the surface treated without LP, and the nonsurface-treated scaffolds without LP, respectively. The results from Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy indicated degradation of PCL and PHBV through hydrolysis of the ester functional group. The compressive strengths of all scaffolds were sufficiently high. The results suggested that the scaffolds with the existence of LP and with surface treatment showed the highest potential for use as cartilage scaffolds.

Chondrogenic Differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Macrophage Polarization on 3D-Printed Poly(ε-caprolactone)/Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Blended Scaffolds with Different Secondary Porous Structures

“…It was in good agreement with the previous reports on the effects of different surface topographical structures of the substrate materials on the cell proliferation rates and the differentiation of MSCs. 19,43,44 At prolonged culture periods, i.e., Day21 and Day28, the cell proliferation observed in the pristine 60B_PC/PH/0SC scaffold was indeed constant, while an insignificantly decreased proliferation rate was noted in 60B_PC/PH/25SC that contained SP sporadically located in the filament matrix. In contrast, a noticeable drop in the proliferation rate was observed in the porous scaffold with a vast number of tiny pores thoroughly distributed in the scaffold filament, i.e., 60B_PC/PH/50SC.…”

“…A number of approaches have been reported to create well-defined framework structures of the cartilage scaffolds, including electrospinning, thermally induced phase separation, salt leaching, and three-dimensional (3D) printing . Recently, using combinations of different scaffold fabrication techniques has been of great interest and benefit, particularly when to develop high performance scaffolds with desired structures, properties, and functionalities. − For example, Song et al . reported the fabrication of 3D porous poly­(lactic acid) (PLA)/poly­(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) blended scaffolds with tailored macroporous and microporous architectures by combining fused deposition modeling (FDM) and gas foaming methods, followed by the solvent (water) etching to create open minor pores on the surfaces of the scaffolds.…”

“…They confirmed that the introduction of microporosity and the enhancement of surface area allowed for loading and controlled release of antibiotics. Additionally, surface modification is essentially needed through hydrolysis, plasma treatment, chemical modification or biomolecule addition to maximize the scaffold performances. − The effective surface treatments could not only alter the surface properties, e.g., wettability and roughness, but occasionally change the surface chemical compositions of the materials.…”

“…31 Very recently, we have successfully developed PCL/PHBV blended scaffolds with dual primary and secondary pores via a 3D printing technique, i.e., FDM, followed by porogen leaching process. 19 Sodium chloride (NaCl), employed as a porogen, was initially integrated into the PCL/PHBV blended FDM filaments and eventually leached out via alkaline hydrolysis, spontaneously resulting in not only micropores on the material surfaces but also an increase in the hydrophilicity of the scaffold surfaces, both of which could satisfactorily promote the growth of porcine chondrocytes. However, the development of tissue-engineered scaffolds with good inflammatory control has been a challenge essential for clinical use.…”

Polycaprolactone usage in additive manufacturing strategies for tissue engineering applications: A review

“…Surface properties have a critical function during biocompatibility assays, and a variety of approaches have been employed to increase cell attachment, affinity and expression 98 . Among them, low‐complexity surface treatments, such as NaOH, have been extensively used either to activate the surface by increasing roughness or as a precoating step of 3D‐plotted scaffolds 99,100 . In contrast, advanced coating using natural polymers such as chitosan 9,101 and collagen, 102 growth factors, 103 gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) cell encapsulation, 104 gold nanoparticles decoration, 105 and surface grafted with Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 (BMP‐2) 106 figure as the most promising to tune the biocompatibility and give rise to bioactive behavior of additive manufactured PCL scaffolds.…”