Polyelectrolyte Multilayer Capsule (PEMC)-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

Abstract

Tissue engineering (TE) is a highly multidisciplinary field that focuses on novel regenerative treatments and seeks to tackle problems relating to tissue growth both in vitro and in vivo. These issues currently involve the replacement and regeneration of defective tissues, as well as drug testing and other related bioapplications. The key approach in TE is to employ artificial structures (scaffolds) to support tissue development; these constructs should be capable of hosting, protecting and releasing bioactives that guide cellular behaviour. A straightforward approach to integrating bioactives into the scaffolds is discussed utilising polyelectrolyte multilayer capsules (PEMCs). Herein, this review illustrates the recent progress in the use of CaCO3 vaterite-templated PEMCs for the fabrication of functional scaffolds for TE applications, including bone TE as one of the main targets of PEMCs. Approaches for PEMC integration into scaffolds is addressed, taking into account the formulation, advantages, and disadvantages of such PEMCs, together with future perspectives of such architectures.

Biopolymer-Based Multilayer Capsules and Beads Made via Templating: Advantages, Hurdles and Perspectives

“…Using additive-free methods, it is possible to reach sizes of close to 720 nm. Of note, we are able to reach sizes of up to 55 um CaCO3 crystals [123] for potential use as porogens [171] for tissue engineering scaffolds (Figure 6(3),( 4)). Smaller sub-micron and nano-sized functional delivery vehicles are necessary for the effective treatment of ailments, including cancer, in which the enhanced permeation…”

Core–shell microcapsules: biofabrication and potential applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

“…The assembly of the multilayered shell can rely on multiple forces acting between the chosen materials, including hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, covalent bonds and electrostatic interactions. 206,207 The most common approach takes advantage of electrostatic interactions between polyelectrolytes with opposing charges. Appropriate polycations and polyanions are selected and sequentially deposited to produce a polymer shell.…”

“…208 The inner core of the capsules can then be liquefied, dissolved or eliminated, allowing the generation of microcapsules with solid, liquefied or hollow cores. 83,206,209 Alginate-poly-L-lysine-alginate (APA) capsules are one of the most prominently used systems in cell encapsulation. These capsules contain an alginate core surrounded by a multilayered shell of poly-L-lysine (PLL) and alginate.…”

Cardiac tissue engineering, biomaterial scaffolds, and their fabrication techniques

“…74 Also, scaffolds with synthetic-polymeric base are adopted in this field, as they display major characteristics such as high rate of degradation, proper porosity, and suitable mechanical features. 75,76 In recent years, there has been an increased interest in bio-or synthetic polymer-based scaffolds like fibrin 48 for its fabrication, biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, and its potential for modification of targeted tissue site 49 and other synthetic polymers like ECM/chitosan/alginate ternary scaffolds, 50 polyelectrolyte multilayer capsule (PEMC), 51 3D PVA, 52 and poly-hydroxymethylglycolide-co-ε-caprolactone. 47,[77][78][79][80][81]…”