Positive and negative experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic among lonely and non-lonely populations in Germany

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic is causing an epidemic of loneliness. Previous studies have shown the differences in positive and negative experiences of lonely and non-lonely people in a non-pandemic setting. However, it is unclear how the drastic alteration of the COVID-19 pandemic may influence peoples' reactions and beliefs, especially among those who feel lonely. Our study aims to examine the positive and negative experiences among lonely and non-lonely people. We undertook a cross-sectional online survey of the general population in Germany (N = 1,758) from May 2020 to May 2022. We assessed their feelings of loneliness with the short eight-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8), their positive and negative experience of living in the COVID-19 pandemic as well as their psychological distress regarding the pandemic with the COVID-19 Peritraumatic Distress Index (CPDI). We found lonely individuals (ULS-8 score ≥ 16) reported fewer positive experiences of living in the COVID-19 pandemic, for example, less time with loved ones [z(1, 756) = −2.5, p = 0.012] and less sense of togetherness [z(1, 756) = −2.39, p = 0.017] as compared to non-lonely individuals. Meanwhile, they experienced more negative experiences, for example, worry and fear [z(1, 756) = 6.31, p < 0.001] compared with non-lonely individuals. Interestingly, lonely people were less likely to view the pandemic as a conspiracy than non-lonely people were [z(1, 756) = −3.35, p < 0.001]. Our results may give insight into attribution bias and the negative affect of lonely people during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as highlight the experience of non-lonely people and raise the question of differences in conspiracy beliefs. For pandemic preparedness and response, decision-makers may focus on interventions to foster social cohesion, empower people, build resilience, and most importantly provide timely social care.

The positive and negative emotion functions related to loneliness: a systematic review of behavioural and neuroimaging studies

“…A total of 14 studies investigated the association between loneliness and negative emotions. Among these, one study was conducted in adolescents (Baytemir and Yildiz, 2017 ), four studies were conducted in young adults (Durak and Senol-Durak, 2010 ; Satici 2019 ; Tan et al ., 2020 ; Shi et al ., 2023 ), four were conducted in middle-aged adults (Ben-Zur 2012 ; Velotti et al ., 2021 ; Mikocka-Walus et al ., 2021 ; Wegner and Liu, 2023 ), and five were conducted in older adults (Steptoe et al ., 2011 ; Neto 2014 ; Serra et al ., 2021 ; Hoffman et al ., 2021 ; Badal et al ., 2022 ). All 14 studies reported a positive relationship between loneliness and negative emotions among healthy individuals.…”

“…The difference in findings might be caused by the latter study specifically testing the relationship between loneliness and negative symptoms under the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, one study showed that loneliness as measured using ULS-20 was positively correlated with general negative emotions (Ben-Zur 2012 ; n = 196, mixed-sex), and another study showed that loneliness as measured using ULS-8 was positively associated with distress emotions to the COVID-19 pandemic (Wegner and Liu, 2023 , n = 1354, mostly females).…”