Postmenopausal Hormone Replacement Therapy: Endometrial and Breast Effects

Abstract

The history of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) dates back to the late 1800s, when animal extracts of ovaries were first used. With the development of synthetic hormones, widespread use in postmenopausal women extended throughout the industrialized world, so that by the late 1900s roughly one-third to one-half of all postmenopausal women in the United States and Europe were taking HRT. Two events changed the course of use of HRT: the association of an increased rate of endometrial carcinoma with estrogen-only HRT and the association of an increased breast cancer rate with combined estrogen and progestin HRT. This review explores the evidence of the effects of HRT on the endometrium and the breast, with emphasis on the pathologic changes.

Roles of hormone replacement therapy and iron in proliferation of breast epithelial cells with different estrogen and progesterone receptor status

“…27 In the present study, we have shown that Prempro™, a drug often used for HRT in post-menopausal women, enhanced cell proliferation only in ER + cells (e.g., MCF-7 or MXT + cells), regardless of PR status (e.g., PR − MCF-10A or PR + MXT − cells). These results suggest that equine estrogen in the Prempro™ tablet may be the main active ingredient causing ER + cell proliferation.…”

The effects of luteolin on osteoclast differentiation, function in vitro and ovariectomy-induced bone loss

“…However, these pharmacological treatments give rise to the side effects, such as gastrointestinal tolerance in bisphosphonate and increased risk of breast, ovarian and endometrial cancer [7,8]. Hence, growing evidence of the benefits of natural foods for bone health provide an alternative approach for managing osteoporosis.…”

Potent inhibitory effect of Foeniculum vulgare Miller extract on osteoclast differentiation and ovariectomy-induced bone loss

“…Current drugs for bone health include bisphosphonates, calcitonin, and estrogen, which prevent osteoclastic bone resorption, resulting in the maintenance of bone mass and a reduction in the number of fractures (3,4); however, each of these drugs is associated with some adverse effects, such as hypercalcemia, increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer, and gastrointestinal intolerance for bisphosphonate (5,6). Hence, it is necessary to develop naturally occurring compounds with fewer side effects that can substitute for or eliminate the drugs that are currently used.…”