Posttraumatic stress disorder and exposure to trauma reminders after a terrorist attack

Abstract

The aims of this study were twofold: (a) to systematically describe the type and frequency of trauma reminders reported after a terrorist attack and (b) to examine whether posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with frequency of exposure to trauma reminders. A total of 285 survivors (M age = 22.2, SD = 4.3, 53% males) of the 2011 massacre on Utøya Island, Norway, were interviewed face to face 14-15 months after the terror. Participants were asked how often they had experienced a range of different trauma reminders in the past month and which was most distressing. Current posttraumatic stress reactions were measured using the University of California at Los Angeles PTSD Reaction Index. In all, 33.3% of the survivors reported having experienced 1 or more trauma reminders often/very often in the past month. Auditory reminders were most frequently encountered and were reported to be the most distressing, especially sudden and sharp noises. Meeting the diagnostic criteria for PTSD was significantly associated with frequency of exposure to trauma reminders. The findings suggest that trauma reminders are common among survivors of a terrorist attack almost 1.5 years after the trauma and that PTSD is strongly related to the frequency of exposure to reminders. It is important that clinicians are aware of the significant role trauma reminders may play in maintaining PTSD and help trauma survivors recognize and manage reminders.

Helping the helpers: Post‐traumatic distress and need for help among Israeli social workers in foster care agencies following armed conflict

“…This study examined post-traumatic stress symptoms and functional impairment among Israeli foster care social workers and the type of help they needed and received following armed conflict. Similar to previous studies both among children (Slone, Lavi, Ozer, & Pollak, 2017) and adults (Glad, Jensen, Hafstad, & Dyb, 2016), and in support of Hypothesis 1, we found that exposure to the armed conflict was moderately associated with post-traumatic stress symptoms and functional impairment. Nonetheless, only 11% felt functional impairment with regard to their treatment of the foster family.…”

Attack at Fort Hood: Experiences and Suggestions for Security

“…Increased levels of distress can occur when trauma reminders of an event lead the victim to re-experiences the traumatic event. Trauma reminders are cues that mirror or resemble events experienced during the traumatic event and consequently cause similar reactions of the event itself (Glad, Jensen, Hafstad, & Dyb, 2016). Two hundred eighty five survivors of the Utoya Island attack were interviewed to identify trauma reminders and to evaluate whether experiencing trauma reminders correlated to levels of PTSD.…”

“…From this interview, seven general types of trauma reminders for the Utoya attack were identified. The seven types of trauma reminders were: auditory, situational, emotional, visual, bodily reactions, olfactory, and tactile (Glad, et al, 2016).…”

“…They were then asked how often over the last month they had experienced the reminders and if the reminders caused them stress. A 5-point scale where (1) indicated never and (5) indicated very often was utilized to measure stress levels emanating from the trauma reminder (Glad, et al, 2016).…”

“…This index was used to determine the presence of PTSD in the participants by rating their symptom responses on a 5 point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (most of the time). Only scores of 3 or 4 were used for calculation possible PTSD diagnosis (Glad, et al, 2016).…”