Potential internalisation of caliciviruses in lettuce

Urbanucci, Alfonso; Myrmel, Mette; Berg, Ingvild; Bonsdorff, C-H. von; Maunula, Leena

doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2009.07.036

Cited by 52 publications

(61 citation statements)

References 30 publications

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“…A large amount of outbreak data showed that fresh produce has become one of the major vehicles of transmitting food-borne viruses, particularly human norovirus (2,8,26,39,53). Recent evidence showed that human norovirus not only tightly binds to fresh produce but also can become internalized (50,61,63). Traditional sanitization strategy is thus not effective in removing human norovirus from produce, particularly for internalized virions.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Inactivation of a Human Norovirus Surrogate, Human Norovirus Virus-Like Particles, and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus by Gamma Irradiation

Feng¹,

Divers²,

Ma³

et al. 2011

Appl Environ Microbiol

114

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Gamma irradiation is a nonthermal processing technology that has been used for the preservation of a variety of food products. This technology has been shown to effectively inactivate bacterial pathogens. Currently, the FDA has approved doses of up to 4.0 kGy to control food-borne pathogens in fresh iceberg lettuce and spinach. However, whether this dose range effectively inactivates food-borne viruses is less understood. We have performed a systematic study on the inactivation of a human norovirus surrogate (murine norovirus 1 [MNV-1]), human norovirus virus-like particles (VLPs), and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) by gamma irradiation. We demonstrated that MNV-1 and human norovirus VLPs were resistant to gamma irradiation. For MNV-1, only a 1.7-to 2.4-log virus reduction in fresh produce at the dose of 5.6 kGy was observed. However, VSV was more susceptible to gamma irradiation, and a 3.3-log virus reduction at a dose of 5.6 kGy in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) was achieved. We further demonstrated that gamma irradiation disrupted virion structure and degraded viral proteins and genomic RNA, which resulted in virus inactivation. Using human norovirus VLPs as a model, we provide the first evidence that the capsid of human norovirus has stability similar to that of MNV-1 after exposure to gamma irradiation. Overall, our results suggest that viruses are much more resistant to irradiation than bacterial pathogens. Although gamma irradiation used to eliminate the virus contaminants in fresh produce by the FDA-approved irradiation dose limits seems impractical, this technology may be practical to inactivate viruses for other purposes, such as sterilization of medical equipment.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Chlorine solution rinses can achieve only a maximum 1-to 1.5-log virus reduction in contaminated fresh produce (3,53). More importantly, recent evidence suggests noroviruses can become internalized in fresh produce (50,61,63). Chemical sanitizers may reduce the viruses at the surface level of produce, but not those that have been internalized.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Inactivation of a Human Norovirus Surrogate, Human Norovirus Virus-Like Particles, and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus by Gamma Irradiation

Feng¹,

Divers²,

Ma³

et al. 2011

Appl Environ Microbiol

114

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“…As most viral contamination would be from external sources during spraying or irrigation, a critical factor influencing the decision to analyze vegetables, whole or chopped, would be whether the claims that viruses can enter plants through root damage are substantiated or not. It appears that internal contamination of the leaves of tomato plants and green onions can occur (Oron et al 1995;Chancellor et al 2006) and that the internal contamination is of a much lower level than external contamination (Carter 2005;Urbanucci et al 2009). …”

Section: Sampling For Viruses Associated With Foodmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Some authors have reported the presence of viral particles trapped inside vegetables taken up intracellularly through the roots (Oron et al 1995;Chancellor et al 2006;Carter 2005;Urbanucci et al 2009). This mechanism warrants further examination, and if confirmed, it will change future approaches for the detection of viruses from vegetables.…”

Section: Virus Release From Food Matricesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analytical Methods for Virus Detection in Water and Food

et al. 2010

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Potential ways to address the issues that relate to the techniques for analyzing food and environmental samples for the presence of enteric viruses are discussed. It is not the authors' remit to produce or recommend standard or reference methods but to address specific issues in the analytical procedures. Foods of primary importance are bivalve molluscs, particularly, oysters, clams, and mussels; salad crops such as lettuce, green onions and other greens; and soft fruits such as raspberries and strawberries. All types of water, not only drinking water but also recreational water (fresh, marine, and swimming pool), river water (irrigation water), raw and treated sewage are potential vehicles for virus transmission. Well over 100 different enteric viruses could be food or water contaminants; however, with few exceptions, most well-characterized foodborne or waterborne viral outbreaks are restricted to hepatitis A virus (HAV) and calicivirus, essentially norovirus (NoV). Target viruses for analytical methods include, in addition to NoV and HAV, hepatitis E virus (HEV), enteroviruses (e.g., poliovirus), adenovirus, rotavirus, astrovirus, and any other relevant virus likely to be transmitted by food or water. A survey of the currently available methods for detection of viruses in food and environmental matrices was conducted, gathering information on protocols for extraction of viruses from various matrices and on the various specific detection techniques for each virus type.

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“…However, as viral particles are small, at approximately Ͻ100 nm in diameter, another possible route of contamination through irrigation water is the internalization of human enteric viruses through roots into the edible tissues of leafy greens during plant water absorption. To date, few studies have been conducted on the uptake of enteric viruses by plants via contaminated irrigation water, and the literature is inconsistent on the likelihood and quantity of internalized virus when roots are intact or damaged (2,21,22).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Internalization of Murine Norovirus 1 by Lactuca sativa during Irrigation

Wei

Jin

Sims

et al. 2011

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa) was grown hydroponically or in soil and challenged with murine norovirus 1 (MNV) under two conditions: one mimicking a severe one-time contamination event and another mimicking a lower level of contamination occurring over time. In each condition, lettuce was challenged with MNV delivered at the roots. In the first case, contamination occurred on day one with 5 ؋ 10 8 reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) U/ml MNV in nutrient buffer, and irrigation water was replaced with virus-free buffer every day for another 4 days. In the second case, contamination with 5 ؋ 10 5 RT-qPCR U/ml MNV (freshly prepared) occurred every day for 5 days. Virus had a tendency to adsorb to soil particles, with a small portion suspended in nutrient buffer; e.g., ϳ8 log RT-qPCR U/g MNV was detected in soil during 5 days of challenge with virus inoculums of 5 ؋ 10 8 RT-qPCR U/ml at day one, but <6 log was found in nutrient buffer on days 3 and 5. For hydroponically grown lettuce, ϳ3.4 log RT-qPCR U of viral RNA/50 mg of plant tissue was detected in some lettuce leaf samples after 5 days at high MNV inoculums, significantly higher than the internalized virus concentration (ϳ2.6 log) at low inoculums (P < 0.05). For lettuce grown in soil, approximately 2 log RT-qPCR U of viral RNA/50 mg of plant tissue was detected in lettuce with both high and low inoculums, showing no significant difference. For viral infectivity, infectious MNV was found in lettuce samples challenged with high virus inoculums grown hydroponically and in soil but not in lettuce grown with low virus inoculums. Lettuce grown hydroponically was further incubated in 99% and 70% relative humidities (RH) to evaluate plant transpiration relative to virus uptake. More lettuce samples were found positive for MNV at a significantly higher transpiration rate at 70% RH, indicating that transpiration might play an important role in virus internalization into L. sativa.

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Potential internalisation of caliciviruses in lettuce

Cited by 52 publications

References 30 publications

Inactivation of a Human Norovirus Surrogate, Human Norovirus Virus-Like Particles, and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus by Gamma Irradiation

Inactivation of a Human Norovirus Surrogate, Human Norovirus Virus-Like Particles, and Vesicular Stomatitis Virus by Gamma Irradiation

Analytical Methods for Virus Detection in Water and Food

Internalization of Murine Norovirus 1 by Lactuca sativa during Irrigation

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