Potential of environmental concentrations of the musks galaxolide and tonalide to induce oxidative stress and genotoxicity in the marine environment

Effects of the Fragrance Galaxolide on the Biomarker Responses of the Clam Ruditapes philippinarum

“…In a 21-d exposure test, HHCB (500 ng/L) caused oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation) and DNA strand breaks in the freshwater zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha [40]. Oxidative stress, genetic damage and antioxidant enzymes activity alterations were also recorded in the Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum exposed for 21 days to 0.005, 0.05, 0.5, 5 and 50 µg/L of HHCB [32]. Recently, the neurotoxic and endocrine-disrupting effects of the compound have been investigated in the same clam species [41].…”

“…In a study with Mytilus californianus, HHCB acted as a chemosensitizer, inhibiting the multixenobiotic resistance of the mussels [29]. Despite all these findings, information about sub-lethal effects due to long-term exposure of marine organisms to HHCB is lacking [32].…”

“…Clam tissues analysed were the haemolymph, for evaluating haemocyte parameters [42][43][44], gills, being The toxicity of HHCB is still a matter of debate [7]. In the last few years, some studies on the effects of HHCB on aquatic organisms, including marine species, have been performed [7,[28][29][30][31][32]. Both estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects were observed in biological models and aquatic organisms [7].…”

Kinetics and Mechanistic Studies of Photochemical and Oxidative Stability of Galaxolide

“…Although its concentration in surface waters is low, its presence is not neutral to organisms living in this environment. Several studies indicated that permanent exposition to a tiny concentration of HHCB induces oxidative stress in aqueous organisms [19][20][21]. It is proved that continuous exposure to its environmental concentrations albeit it has not caused acute toxicity [21], resulted in increased lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl levels [20,21].…”

“…Several studies indicated that permanent exposition to a tiny concentration of HHCB induces oxidative stress in aqueous organisms [19][20][21]. It is proved that continuous exposure to its environmental concentrations albeit it has not caused acute toxicity [21], resulted in increased lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl levels [20,21]. The 21 days exposition of Dressena polymorpha with the use of 100 and 500 ng HHCB L −1 solutions demonstrated its high potential to DNA strand breaks but has not caused any viable fixed genetic damage [20].…”