Potential Role of Fluoride in the Etiopathogenesis of Alzheimer’s Disease

Abstract

The etiopathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease has not been fully explained. Now, the disease is widely attributed both to genetic and environmental factors. It is believed that only a small percentage of new AD cases result solely from genetic mutations, with most cases attributed to environmental factors or to the interaction of environmental factors with preexistent genetic determinants. Fluoride is widespread in the environment and it easily crosses the blood–brain barrier. In the brain fluoride affects cellular energy metabolism, synthesis of inflammatory factors, neurotransmitter metabolism, microglial activation, and the expression of proteins involved in neuronal maturation. Finally, and of specific importance to its role in Alzheimer’s disease, studies report fluoride-induced apoptosis and inflammation within the central nervous system. This review attempts to elucidate the potential relationship between the effects of fluoride exposure and the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. We describe the impact of fluoride-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in the pathogenesis of AD and demonstrate a role for apoptosis in disease progression, as well as a mechanism for its initiation by fluoride. The influence of fluoride on processes of AD initiation and progression is complex and warrants further investigation, especially considering growing environmental fluoride pollution.

The Use of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Migraine

“…Despite numerous studies concerning the pathophysiology of migraine, the exact molecular mechanism of disturbances underlying migraine is still unknown [1,8]. The speculated theories pay significant attention to oxidative stress [23,24], understood as disturbances in the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production-degradation balance [25]. As such, this phenomenon is involved in the etiopathogenesis of numerous diseases, such as atherosclerosis, reduced kidney function, or ischemic stroke [26][27][28].…”

“…As such, this phenomenon is involved in the etiopathogenesis of numerous diseases, such as atherosclerosis, reduced kidney function, or ischemic stroke [26][27][28]. Recently, it is also considered to be one of the factors leading to the development of neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases of the central nervous system, e.g., multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, or Parkinson's disease [25,29,30].…”

Mechanisms of Fluoride Toxicity: From Enzymes to Underlying Integrative Networks

“…In the brain, fluoride affects cellular energy metabolism, synthesis of inflammatory factors, neurotransmitter metabolism, microglial activation, and the expression of proteins involved in neuronal maturation. With knowledge of the pluripotent mechanism of fluoride toxicity on the molecular and cellular level, we can also predict its adverse effects on the brain during aging [140,141].…”

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“…Studies show that cellular energy metabolism, metabolism of the neurotransmitter, synthesis of inflammatory factors, etc. are affected by fluoride exposure of brain 26 . Fluoride is recognized as a developmental neurotoxin 27 .…”