Potential Threats Posed by New or Emerging Marine Biotoxins in UK Waters and Examination of Detection Methodology Used in Their Control: Brevetoxins

Abstract

Regular occurrence of brevetoxin-producing toxic phytoplankton in commercial shellfishery areas poses a significant risk to shellfish consumer health. Brevetoxins and their causative toxic phytoplankton are more limited in their global distribution than most marine toxins impacting commercial shellfisheries. On the other hand, trends in climate change could conceivably lead to increased risk posed by these toxins in UK waters. A request was made by UK food safety authorities to examine these toxins more closely to aid possible management strategies, should they pose a threat in the future. At the time of writing, brevetoxins have been detected in the Gulf of Mexico, the Southeast US coast and in New Zealand waters, where regulatory levels for brevetoxins in shellfish have existed for some time. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of brevetoxins and brevetoxin-producing phytoplankton in the UK, together with testing methodologies. Chemical, biological and biomolecular methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work to enable effective testing. Although the focus here is on the UK, from a strategic standpoint many of the topics discussed will also be of interest in other parts of the world since new and emerging marine biotoxins are of global concern.

Screening for the presence of lipophilic marine biotoxins in shellfish samples using the neuro-2a bioassay

“…This might be unknown YTX analogues, or possibly another type of lipophilic toxin. Brevetoxins (BTxs) and palytoxins (PlTxs) are known to be extracted with methanol (Reverte et al 2014;Turner et al 2015). However, to detect BTxs, the addition of ouabain and veratridine (O/V) during exposure of the cells is needed.…”

Assessing risks and mitigating impacts of harmful algal blooms on mariculture and marine fisheries

“…Microalgae can produce a broader spectrum of toxic compounds than illustrated in Table 2 and include yessotoxins (YTXs) and pectenotoxins (PTXs) that mainly cause diarrhoea (Reguera et al 2014). An increasing number of toxic compounds derived from algae are being detected as monitoring and analytical tools become more advanced, including brevetoxins (Turner et al 2015) and cyclic imines (Davidson et al 2015).…”

Ladder-Shaped Ion Channel Ligands: Current State of Knowledge

“…The absence of external indications, limited techniques of determination as well as thermostability of CTXs and BTXs have become concomitant factors causing local CFP and NSP outbreaks in countries that are located distant from the common habitats of these algae [ 40 ]. Tens of ciguatera cases caused by consummation of contaminated fish were already recorded in various countries of Europe and America [ 16 , 43 ]. It has to be taken into account that the area of the occurrence of ciguatera fishes may be wider than the harmful algae habitat itself because of the possibility of long distance migration of contaminated fish.…”

“…Firstly, the global warming has contributed to the emergence of dinoflagellate species in previously subtropical and even temperate regions [ 16 ]. Secondly, it has been found that this temperature range itself may be wider than thought [ 43 ]. Finally, the anthropogenic factor plays an important role in the distribution of these microalgae.…”

“…The expansion of the aquatic area in temperature range combined with the role of contemporary transport seaways has increased the area that is appropriate for the reproduction of Karenia and Gambierdiscus . This provides the possibility for the fast distribution of these species and changes in areas as the result of the backrush of ballast waters [ 43 ].…”