Rare earth elements R with high reduction potentials
E
° (R
3+
/R
2+
), originating from low third ionization potentials I
3
, i.e., R = La, Ce, Pr, (Nd), Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Lu, Y, Sc, are capable of forming clusters. Almost all of the observed clusters contain an endohedral atom Z. The majority of these clusters are octahedral, {ZR
6
}, but the coordination number of the endohedral atom can also be 4, 7, or 8. The clusters are surrounded by halido ligands X. The cluster complexes then have the general composition {ZR
x
}X
z
. Isolated cluster complexes are rare. They are usually connected via common ligands and, more importantly, share common cluster atoms and are further connected via common ligands to oligomers, chains, and layers. Bonding in cluster complexes is predominantly polar ZR and RX bonding with usually only little homoatomic RR or ZZ bonding.