Pre- and Post-Harvest Practices of Urban Leafy Green Vegetable Farmers in Accra, Ghana and Their Association with Microbial Quality of Vegetables Produced

Abstract

Vegetable farming is the most practiced urban agriculture in Ghana. A previous study of our laboratory revealed poor microbial quality of, and presence of Salmonella on, leafy green vegetables grown or sold in Accra, Ghana. The aims of this study were to determine agricultural practices of urban vegetable farmers and the association between agricultural practices and microbial safety of vegetables produced. A survey was conducted among 102 farmers from 12 farming areas who produced exotic and indigenous leafy greens in Accra, Ghana to identify their farming practices. It was observed that water from waste drains pumped into shallow wells was used for irrigation by 70% of the farmers. Incompletely composted manure was commonly used (99%) in farming. Vegetables were usually harvested using bare hands (96%) and knives (73%) and transported mainly in sacks (94%) to market centers under non-refrigerated conditions. Over 60% of the farmers disagreed that the use of polluted irrigation water can contaminate vegetables or make consumers sick. According to the seemingly unrelated regression model, farmers with no formal education and less food safety knowledge and had been planting on their current farmlands for several years were likely to produced vegetables with higher fecal coliform and Enterococcus sp. counts compared to other farmers. Vegetables cultivated by farmers who disagreed that the use of contaminated water can make consumers sick were associated with the production of vegetables with high fecal coliform and Enterococcus sp. counts. Education and improved agricultural and post-harvest handling practices should be encouraged among vegetable producers in the area to improve food safety.

Gender dimensions of solid and liquid waste management for reuse in agriculture in Asia and Africa

“…Given farmers' daily exposure to multiple health hazards at home (like poor sanitation) and on farm, which can all cause pathogenic infections, but probably also increased long-term immunity as well as limited knowledge about transmission pathways, the (usually male) farmers in urban Ghana show very limited knowledge of possible food safety issues arising from contact and use of their highly polluted irrigation water . It is noteworthy that despite negative media reports about 'wastewater irrigation' and a range of projects addressing the wastewater challenge (including from IWMI), recent perception studies continue to show that most farmers interviewed in Accra and Kumasi disagree 9 that the use of their irrigation water can contaminate vegetables or make consumers sick (Quansah et al 2020;Arimiyaw et al 2020) similar to reports from surveys conducted 20 years earlier . The usually female vegetable traders, on the other hand, demonstrate basic risk awareness and are at least in Accra more concerned about food quality than their male counterparts on farm.…”

Seasonal water sources at irrigated urban vegetable production sites in Ghana

“…Thus, the Pearson chi‐square test, also known as the chi‐square test of independence, was first used. Although not in a water study, this method was used to study the infections on leafy vegetables in the Greater Accra Region, the region where GAMA is located (Quansah et al, 2020).…”

“…Although not in a water study, this method was used to study the infections on leafy vegetables in the Greater Accra Region, the region where GAMA is located (Quansah et al, 2020).…”

The WHO Guidelines for Safe Wastewater Use in Agriculture: A Review of Implementation Challenges and Possible Solutions in the Global South

“…From a risk This review was catalysed by limited progress, reported in particular from Ghana which was one of the principal countries where, for more than a decade, the WHO, FAO, and IWMI had analysed, alongside national and international partners, the pathogenic and non-pathogenic risks related to wastewater-irrigated vegetable farming along the food chain [20][21][22]; and verified and pioneered the development of a large variety of so called non-treatment options for farmers, traders, and kitchen staff to minimize the health risks for consumers of raw salad greens [23][24][25]. However, more than a decade later, the data from the same cities do not indicate any reduced risks, changed risk perception, or behaviour [26][27][28][29]. This is also discouraging as Ghana references, as maybe the only African country, the 2006 WHO guidelines in its Irrigation Policy in support of safe wastewater irrigation.…”

“…Farmers usually show low occupational risk awareness in view of the water used [29], and object to or neglect recommended safety measures, such as protective clothing (Box 3); likewise the cessation of irrigation before harvesting, as this can easily result in lower yield. Drip irrigation kits, which allow a 2-4 log pathogen reduction, are often not practical as the kits cost money, might not fit farmers' planting density, get clogged as the water is not clean, and can be easily stolen.…”