Predicting Arsenic (As) Exposure on Human Health for Better Management of Drinking Water Sources

Abstract

Chemical pollution in the transboundary Langat River in Malaysia is common both from point and non-point sources. Therefore, the water treatment plants (WTPS) at the Langat River Basin have experienced frequent shutdown incidents. However, the Langat River is one of the main sources of drinking water to almost one-third of the population in Selangor state. Meanwhile, several studies have reported a high concentration of Arsenic (As) in the Langat River that is toxic if ingested via drinking water. However, this is a pioneer study that predicts the As concentration in the Langat River based on time-series data from 2005–2014 to estimate the health risk associated with As ingestion via drinking water at the Langat River Basin. Several time-series prediction models were tested and Gradient Boosted Tree (GBT) gained the best result. This GBT model also fits better to predict the As concentration until December 2024. The mean concentration of As in the Langat River for both 2014 and 2024, as well as the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks of As ingestion via drinking water, were within the drinking water quality standards proposed by the World Health Organization and Ministry of Health Malaysia. However, the ingestion of trace amounts of As over a long period might be detrimental to human health because of its non-biodegradable characteristics. Therefore, it is important to manage the drinking water sources to minimise As exposure risks to human health.

Klang River Water Quality Assessment and Its Effects on Human Health Using Chemometric Analysis

“…Therefore, analyzing As and Ni levels in the Klang River is essential for assessing pollution levels, understanding associated risks, and guiding effective management strategies to improve water quality and protect human health and the environment as exists in diverse inorganic and organic compounds with varying toxicity levels, which mirror the physicochemical properties of As across different valence states (66). Similar results were observed in the Klang River, where concentrations exceeded the maximum limit of NWQS due to the rapid development along the Klang River, which could pose a risk to human health due to its non-biodegradable nature (4,67). It is assumed that Ni is an essential element for some plants and animals.…”

“…The Klang River continues to be essential for several purposes, including navigation, tourism, transit, and fishing (4). Yet rapid development, population growth, urbanization, and the growth of industrial, commercial, and agricultural activities have led to river water pollution, which is dangerous for the environment and poses a major risk to the health of all living things by reducing the water's quality and making it not suitable for human use (4)(5)(6). The increasing concentration of heavy metals in river water is a major worry since they are hazardous to human health.…”

“…Furthermore, contact with these toxic metals can impair physical, neurological, and muscular abilities (7)(8). Studies have also shown that anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for the accumulation and spread of heavy metals in water, particularly arsenic (As) and nickel (Ni), which are predominantly released through Port Klang and can negatively affect the river water quality (4,9). The main routes of exposure to waterborne pollutants such as heavy metals typically include ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation.…”

Deterministic and Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment of Toxic Metals in the Daily Diets of Residents in Industrial Regions of Northern Ningxia, China

“…The ingestion of trace amounts of As over a long period may be detrimental to human health because of its non-biodegradable nature [ 33 ]. Ahmed et al [ 34 ] reported high concentrations of As in the transboundary Langat River in Malaysia. Therefore, it is important to manage drinking water sources to minimize human health risks associated with As exposure.…”

Arsenic Exposure via Contaminated Water and Food Sources

“…These studies revealed that the water sources, commonly in use by the inhabitants, contain arsenic concentrations below the permissible limit in drinking water [68]. Instead, surface water, namely the Langat River, showed As concentrations sometimes higher than the limit and in the range 1-22 µg/L [69]; however, such concentrations are not considered as dangerous for human health, especially if surface water is not consumed directly as drink-ing water. The arsenic concentration of river water can affect the accumulation of arsenic on food produced by the use of this water, i.e., when used for irrigation.…”