Predicting the effects of anthropogenic noise on fish reproduction

Abstract

Aquatic animals use and produce sound for critical life functions, including reproduction. Anthropogenic noise is recognized as a global source of environmental pollution and adequate conservation and management strategies are urgently needed. It becomes therefore critical to identify the reproductive traits that render a species vulnerable to acoustic disturbances, and the types of anthropogenic noise that are most likely to impact reproduction. Here, we provide predictions about noise impact on fish reproduction following a two-step approach: first, we grouped documented effects of noise into three mechanistic categories: stress, masking and hearing-loss, and test which type of noise (continuous vs intermittent and regular vs irregular) was most likely to produce a significant response in each category with either a metaanalysis or a quantitative review, depending on data availability. Second, we reviewed existing literature to predict which reproductive traits would render fish most sensitive to stress, masking and hearing-loss. In step one, we concluded that continuous sounds with irregular amplitude and/or frequency-content (e.g. heavy ship traffic) were most likely to cause stress, and continuous sounds were also most likely to induce masking and hearing-loss. From step two we concluded that the vulnerability of a species to noise-induced stress will mainly depend on: (1) its potential to reallocate reproduction to more quiet times or locations, and (2) its vulnerability to masking and hearing-loss mainly on the function of sound communication in its reproductive behaviour. We discuss in which stages of reproduction fish are most likely to be vulnerable to anthropogenic noise based on these findings.

Reduction of roadway noise in a coastal city underwater soundscape during COVID-19 confinement

“…Continuous low frequency irregular noise has been claimed to increase stress levels and induce communication masking for fish. 36 Therefore, roadway noise that overlaps with the fish hearing and sound production band is a potential stressor. Low frequency noise may affect invertebrate larval development and behavior as well, 37,38 but its extent remains still unknown because of the lack of audition curves.…”

A state-space model to derive motorboat noise effects on fish movement from acoustic tracking data

“…Furthermore, Holmes et al 60 found that some coastal fishes returned to pre-disruption behaviour after 20 min of motorboat noise exposure. However, behavioural habituation to continuous sounds of heavy ship traffic may hide physiological stress with a potential impact on survival and reproduction 60 – 63 , and general population maintenance 15 . To demonstrate the validity of the habituation hypothesis in our species, fish could be subject of experimental trials in controlled environments (aquaria or tanks), where individuals from high and low acoustically polluted areas are exposed to different levels of noise.…”

Effects of Sound from Seismic Surveys on Fish Reproduction, the Management Case from Norway

“…fishery in California revealed that fish elicit alarm responses [59] and reduced longline catches [67]. However, it should be noted that studies were conducted with caged fish, which may influence the observed behavior, as well as inhibit larger-scale movements such as flight or avoidance, although this depends on the size and design of the enclosure [18,68].…”

“…If so, the need for strong protection of spawning habitats may not be the most efficient advice to prevent potential negative impacts on fish stocks. Therefore, a large project investigating the effects of seismic on spawning behavior and spawning performance as well as avoidance was initiated in 2018; "Effects of sound on spawning behavior and reproductive success of cod" (Spawn-Seis) (https://prosjektbanken.forskningsradet.no/project/FORISS/280367?Kilde=FORISS &distribution=Ar&chart=bar&calcType=funding&Sprak=no&sortBy=score&sortOrder=de sc&resultCount=30&offset=0&Fritekst=SpawnSeis, accessed on 17 April 2021) From this project, there are indications that continuous noise may be more hazardous for fish reproduction than intermittent blasts [18]. However, loud impulsive noise has been shown to produce stress, which could affect the spawning output.…”

“…This may affect individual fitness and could, ultimately, lead to population and ecosystem-level consequences [10][11][12]. The effects of noise on aquatic life have been reviewed extensively (e.g., [7,8,[11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]). These reviews highlight the absence of observational evidence of population-level impacts.…”