Predictors Associated with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Complications over Time: A Literature Review

Abstract

Early detection of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) complications is essential to prevent disability and death. Risk prediction models are tools to estimate the probability that an individual with specific risk factors will develop a future condition within a certain time period. A predictive model that incorporates time to quantify the risk of T2DM complications such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) event is still lacking. Well-established and validated predictive models of T2D complications are vital to stratify patients based on their risks; thus, individualization therapy could be optimized. New approaches (e.g., the parametric approach) are needed in developing predictive models of T2DM complications by incorporating new and time-varying predictors that may improve the existing models’ predictive ability. This review aimed (1) to summarize the reported predictors for the five main complications of T2DM, which include cardiovascular diseases, ischemic stroke, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic neuropathy, and diabetic retinopathy, and (2) to highlight the persistent need for future risk score models as screening tools for the early prevention of T2D complications.

An Update on the Molecular and Cellular Basis of Pharmacotherapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

“…Unlike T1DM, T2DM can be prevented by maintaining a healthy lifestyle that involves regular exercise, smoking cessation, a healthy diet and reversing obesity [8,56,57]. On the other hand, individuals with T2DM are believed to have a higher risk of several complications including stroke, ischemic heart diseases [5], chronic kidney disease [58,59] and increased hospitalization.…”

The inverse association between DNA gaps and HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus

“…A previous study demonstrated that patients with type 2 DM often have relatively impaired genetic function, and genome instability is believed to be a factor that contributes to type 2 DM 3 – 10 . Type 2 DM patients are more likely to develop various conditions that affect elderly people, causing type 2 DM to be one of the world's most major health problems 11 – 20 . Tissue damage and multiorgan dysfunction, such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, foot ulcers, chronic kidney failure, and diabetic retinopathy, can occur in type 2 DM patients 21 – 29 .…”

Decreased Alu methylation in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients increases HbA1c levels

“…Currently, an estimated 537 million people are at an increased risk of type 2 DM, and this number is expected to increase to 592 million by 2035 and reach 783 million by 2045 1,2 . Type 2 DM patients can develop various complications, including cardiovascular disease, stroke, foot ulcers, chronic kidney failure, and diabetic retinopathy, 3–10 making it one of the world's most critical health concerns 11,12 . Type 2 DM is a multifactorial condition characterized by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia), 13–15 which are influenced by genetic and epigenetic factors 16–19 .…”

“…1,2 Type 2 DM patients can develop various complications, including cardiovascular disease, stroke, foot ulcers, chronic kidney failure, and diabetic retinopathy, 3-10 making it one of the world's most critical health concerns. 11,12 Type 2 DM is a multifactorial condition characterized by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia), [13][14][15] which are influenced by genetic and epigenetic factors. [16][17][18][19] DNA methylation, an epigenetic event commonly found in elderly individuals, exhibits changes in type 2 DM patients and correlates with poor health status in humans.…”