Preface

Burgi in the Loess Plain of the Lower Rhine Region in Late Antiquity

“…The most intense period in north-western continental Europe was between ad 250 and 270, under the so-called ‘Soldier-Emperors’ (Willems, 1984: 273). Within our study area, there is evidence of episodes of significant depopulation, especially in the north and east (Heeren, 2015, 2017; Dodd, 2021), with a lesser impact towards the south and west (Gechter & Kunow, 1986; Lenz, 1999), whilst a breach of the Limes was postulated in the frontier zone (Mommsen, 1894: 150–52; Van Es, 1981: 47–48; see Heeren, 2016 for a more recent critique). Rural settlements, especially villas, began to transform (Dodd, 2021) and there is widespread evidence for the demolition of Classical funerary monuments for spolia reuse, often in fortifications (Clemens, 2009; see Perse, 1998 for examples).…”

“…in the Rhenish lignite mining area). There seems to be no real discernible pattern: some sites are located along major routes, such as Heidenburg-Hüchelhoven (also known as Quadrath-Ichendorf; Brulet, 2017), whilst others are sited at some distance, such as Weilerwist-Groß-Vernich. Although some burgi , such as Euskirchen-Nettersheim (Hepa et al, 2010), are strategically located at road junctions or river crossings, others are away from transport arteries, such as Hambach 133.…”

“…The region experienced significant dislocation during late antiquity, with several late third- and fourth-century abandonment episodes (Gechter & Kunow, 1986; Lenz, 1999; Dodd, 2021), the early phases of this period being seen as representing a ‘crisis’ (see Fischer, 2012 for examples from the Gallic Empire). Most settlements north of the main Cologne-Bavay highway were abandoned (Heeren, 2015, 2017; Dodd, 2021) and new defended sites appeared, both military and establishments seemingly related to earlier villa complexes. The smaller towns shrunk or were abandoned, with some transformed into fortified enclosures (at Jülich: Perse, 1998; Aachen: Kyritz & Schaub, 2015; Zülpich: Gechter et al, 1979).…”

“…This shift corresponds with an upswing in fortification: new defensive circuits are evident, with most cities fortifying a reduced settlement core, for example at Jülich and Heerlen (Butler, 1959; Mertens, 1977; Johnson, 1983); some sites were abandoned completely, as at Voorburg ( Forum Hadriani ). The widespread development of new fortified sites was coupled with new military networks along the rivers and the Via Belgica (Brulet, 1990, 2017; Heeren, 2018).…”

“…From the late fourth century onwards, the region slowly drifted out of direct Roman control. Military engagement was increasingly transferred to allied groups of foederati (Claudianus [Platnauer, 1922], De Bello Gothico: 419–29; Roymans, 2017: 66–67), whilst incursions from Germanic groups may have broken the Middle Rhine Limes in ad 405–406 (Kulikowski, 2000: 325–45). The early fifth century saw the region effectively leave the Roman orbit: surviving Romanized settlement patterns broke down and new Frankish groups repopulated the landscape (Dierkens & Périn, 2003; Roymans & Heeren, 2015: 557–58).…”