Preliminary Assessment of Badajo Cave (Segovia, Spain) Stability Using Empirical, Numerical and Remote Techniques

Abstract

Badajo cave is a shallow cavity (hemispherical rock shelter) located in the valley of Clamores River (Segovia city, Central Spain). This small canyon carved in Cretaceous dolostones has numerous geosites, as well as a rich archaeological and historical heritage. There are dozens of rock outcrops in the valley’s cliffs and slopes, on both banks, where various types of sedimentary rocks can be easily recognized and differentiated, especially carbonates (dolostones and limestones), and mixed carbonate-detrital (dolomitic sandstones, calcareous silts, marls). The cave was formed by karstic and gravitational processes within a mixed dolomitic sandstones and limestones, and it has an important archaeological interest. This study proposes a preliminary stability analyses of the cave applying: (i) empirical approaches based on geomechanical classifications using Barton’s Q Index, Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and the recently created Cave Geomechanical Index (CGI); (ii) three-dimensional model generated with the remote photogrammetric technique Structure from Motion (SfM) to allow acquisition of data to complete values collected in the geomechanical station, and to create the numerical model of the critical sections of the cave; and (iii) numerical simulations using a 2D model based on the generalized Hoek and Brown failure criterion and a 3D wedge analysis. The results of the analysis show that the cave is stable, although it presents some places with small problems (falls of slabs and blocks) that deserve monitoring. Furthermore, the evaluation by the geomechanical classification Q and the corresponding abacus of cave stability indicates that it is located in the “transition” zone where attention is required. In addition, SfM photogrammetric technique makes possible to generate a geometric 3D model that allowed the acquisition of data that were difficult to take in situ. The geotechnical parameters obtained from the different methods complement each other, resulting in a more realistic engineering representation of the subsurface environment. As a conclusion, a graph showing the two empirical methodologies (Barton’s Q Index and CGI), and some recommendation for a future analysis are given.

Applying SLAM-Based LiDAR and UAS Technologies to Evaluate the Rock Slope Stability of the Grotta Paglicci Paleolithic Site (Italy)

“…Examples of studies that include rock instability analyses are represented by the Sant'Angelo in Criptis cave, in Italy [21], the El Mirador volcanic cave, in Ecuador [22], the Coccio cave, in Italy [23], the Badajo cave, in Spain [24], and the Saint Michael cave, in Italy [25]. In these case studies, 3D cave models were obtained using either LiDAR [21], digital photogrammetry [22,24], or both methodologies [23,25].…”

“…Most of the latter cited works employ traditional methods of rock slope stability analysis, such as the kinematic and dynamic methods based on rock mass characterization. Few papers include finer analyses such as numerical modeling [22,24].…”