Prenatal Stress and its effects of human cognition, behavior and psychopathology: A review of the literature

Abstract

Stress plays a fundamental role in the etiology and evolution of diseases and disorders both in the early stages of development and the adult life. Neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, autism, ADHD and schizophrenia have a complex etiology, which is influenced by early experiences that affect the vulnerability of the individual.During early intrauterine and postnatal life, the developing organism undergoes complex physiological changes, and even small disturbances can have far-reaching consequences which can be observed even into adulthood. Currently, understanding the factors that may be affecting the organism during development is a challenge. Among the effects induced by Prenatal Stress we can mention a dysregulation of the HPA axis, an alteration of the circadian rhythm, a reduction of the hippocampal plasticity and the capacity of learning and memory among others.The effects of Prenatal Stress are widely studied in laboratory animals, but systematic research on human subjects is comparatively scarce. While studies in humans suffer from certain methodological limitations, they are currently the only way to explore some of the most complex, long-term interactions between antenatal stress and the behavioral and cognitive alterations of the offspring. This work aims to review studies about Prenatal Stress pertaining human subjects, and to explore some of the controversies arising on this field.

Early Life Exposure to Violence: Developmental Consequences on Brain and Behavior

“…During pregnancy exposure to high-stress contexts increase maternal cortisol along with a downregulation of the enzyme can result in more cortisol reaching the fetus. This exposure can lead to changes in behavioral development (O’Donnell et al, 2009; Davis and Sandman, 2010; Conradt et al, 2013; Ramborger et al, 2018), a larger infant cortisol response, a slower rate of recovery after experiencing a stressor (Davis et al, 2011), as well as make the infant more susceptible to stress later in life (Davis and Sandman, 2010). Conradt found that high stress during pregnancy leads to epigenetic changes in both the mother and the infant and reduced attentional capacities in infants at 4 months of age (Conradt et al, 2013).…”

What is prenatal stress? A scoping review of how prenatal stress is defined and measured within the context of food insecurity, housing instability, and immigration in the United States

“…3,10,15,25,26 Some commonly used measures of stress during pregnancy have included perceived stress to capture life event changes, daily hassles, and chronic stress; emotional stress to capture anxiety, sadness, and general tension; and psychosocial stress to capture caregiver burden, job strain, and discrimination. [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][11][12][13][14][15][16][27][28][29][30][31] The variation in stress constructs and the multitude of tools used to measure it impedes the comparability of research results to the detriment of maternal mental health promotion.…”

“… 1 , 2 People who experience stress during pregnancy are at a greater risk for maternal mental health disorders and adverse maternal and birth outcomes, including preterm birth, fetal growth restriction, maternal mood disorders, and infant developmental delays. 2 – 16 Maternal mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, bipolar illness, and substance use disorders, are the most common complications of pregnancy and childbirth in the United States, affecting 1 in 5 or 800,000 people each year. 17 – 19 Screening for stress during pregnancy may help identify people who can benefit from stress-reduction interventions to mitigate prenatal stress and associated maternal and fetal outcomes.…”