Presence and potential distribution of malaria-infected New World primates of Costa Rica

Abstract

Background In South and Central America, Plasmodium malariae/Plasmodium brasilianum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium simium, and Plasmodium falciparum has been reported in New World primates (NWP). Specifically in Costa Rica, the presence of monkeys positive to P. malariae/P brasilianum has been identified in both captivity and in the wild. The aim of the present study was to determine the presence of P. brasilianum, P. falciparum, and P. vivax, and the potential distribution of these parasites-infecting NWP from Costa Rica. Methods The locations with PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) positive results and bioclimatic predictors were used to construct ecological niche models based on a modelling environment that uses the Maxent algorithm, named kuenm, capable to manage diverse settings to better estimate the potential distributions and uncertainty indices of the potential distribution. Results PCR analysis for the Plasmodium presence was conducted in 384 samples of four primates (Howler monkey [n = 130], White-face monkey [n = 132], Squirrel monkey [n = 50], and red spider monkey [n = 72]), from across Costa Rica. Three Plasmodium species were detected in all primate species (P. falciparum, P. malariae/P. brasilianum, and P. vivax). Overall, the infection prevalence was 8.9%, but each Plasmodium species ranged 2.1–3.4%. The niche model approach showed that the Pacific and the Atlantic coastal regions of Costa Rica presented suitable climatic conditions for parasite infections. However, the central pacific coast has a more trustable prediction for malaria in primates. Conclusions The results indicate that the regions with higher suitability for Plasmodium transmission in NWP coincide with regions where most human cases have been reported. These regions were also previously identified as areas with high suitability for vector species, suggesting that enzootic and epizootic cycles occur.

Infectious diseases of neotropical primates

“…Mico 156 Brazil 156 Interstitial pneumonia 156 RT-PCR 156 ; IHC 156 Hemozoin pigment intracytoplasmic in macrophages at red pulp from the spleen 3 NP 23,25,33,41,64,145,169 HP 3 , Blood-smears cytology 3,25,64 , Blood-PCR 3,23,25,33,41,64 , Stool-PCR 79,169 , Nested-PCR 145 , IFA 64 Entamoeba Alouatta 219 Mexico 219 NP 219 FPE 219 , PCR 219…”

“…Free-ranging howler monkeys (A. guariba clamitans) are considered de main reservoir of malaria in the Atlantic Forest. Studies using blood and stool PCR have shown high prevalence (30 to 70%) of Plasmodium in free-ranging populations from fragmented and peri-urbanized areas, in some cases coinciding with human malarian outbreaks (3,33,41,145,169). Animals were infected with P. simium, P. falciparuim, and P. brazilianum, and at hematological and biochemical analysis the infected animals presented lymphocytosis, hypoalbuminemia, and high levels of ALT, that were even higher in mixed infections (3,145,169).…”

“…In wildlife, from Amazon to Atlantic Forest, a wide range of NWP has been detected with Plasmodium spp., such as capuchins (Sapajus sp., Sapajus flavius, and Cebus vesicolor) (23,33,64,169), spider monkeys (Ateles sp. and Ateles hybridus) (33,169), titi monkeys (Callicebus dubius and Callicebus caligatus) (25), sakis (Pithecia sp.) (25), and squirrel monkeys (S. scireus) (33).…”

“…and Ateles hybridus) (33,169), titi monkeys (Callicebus dubius and Callicebus caligatus) (25), sakis (Pithecia sp.) (25), and squirrel monkeys (S. scireus) (33). Therefore, studied have been demonstrating the importance of NWP as potential reservoir of malaria parasite.…”

Ecological Niche Modelling Approaches: Challenges and Applications in Vector-Borne Diseases

“…The black-box approach integrates across the entire transmission system, assuming that the final distribution of disease cases summarizes all biotic interactions involved in the transmission [44,61]. This approach is useful when transmission dynamics are poorly understood and data are limited [44,66], as happens for many VBDs (e.g., [67][68][69]). However, the black-box oversimplification in such intricate transmission systems may be perilous, as it neglects the ecological requirements of the individual component species [55,66].…”