Presence of Emerging Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in River and Drinking Water near a Fluorochemical Production Plant in the Netherlands

Abstract

The present study investigated the presence of legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in river water collected in 2016 up- and downstream from a fluorochemical production plant, as well as in river water from control sites, in The Netherlands. Additionally, drinking water samples were collected from municipalities in the vicinity from the production plant, as well as in other regions in The Netherlands. The PFOA replacement chemical GenX was detected at all downstream river sampling sites with the highest concentration (812 ng/L) at the first sampling location downstream from the production plant, which was 13 times higher than concentrations of sum perfluoroalkylcarboxylic acids and perfluoroalkanesulfonates (∑PFCA+∑PFSA). Using high resolution mass spectrometry, 11 polyfluoroalkyl acids belonging to the C2nH2nF2nO2, C2nH2n+2F2nSO4 or C2n+1H2nF2n+4SO4 homologue series were detected, but only in downstream water samples. These emerging PFASs followed a similar distribution as GenX among the downstream sampling sites, suggesting the production plant as the source. Polyfluoroalkyl sulfonates (C2nH2F4nSO3) were detected in all collected river water samples, and therefore appear to be ubiquitous contaminants in Dutch rivers. GenX was also detected in drinking water collected from 3 out of 4 municipalities in the vicinity of the production plant, with highest concentration at 11 ng/L. Drinking water containing the highest level of GenX also contained two C2nH2nF2nO2 homologues.

Developmental Exposures to Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): An Update of Associated Health Outcomes

“…With the growing body of literature on PFAS health effects, pooled and meta-analyses might be possible and would increase statistical power to address the potential toxicity of these compounds. Finally, some fluorinated compounds that have recently replaced PFOS and PFOA in manufacturing processes and that are currently detected in humans and the biota [16] deserve attention and need to be considered in future studies.…”

“…Concentrations of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), the two most widely detected PFASs, have decreased in some countries following a drop in production since the year 2000 [11, 12], but exposure to other short-chain and also some long-chain PFASs are increasing in many countries [13]. In addition, some new fluorinated compounds that are used to replace PFOS have also recently been detected in biota [14–16]. …”

Recently Detected Drinking Water Contaminants: GenX and Other Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Ether Acids

“…The entire sample (containing methanol and IS) was filtered through a GF/A filter (1.7 μm pore size) into an HDPE vacuum flask and the filtrate returned to the original sample bottle. For solid‐phase extraction (SPE), a 500 mL aliquot was removed from the sample bottle and processed through a weak anion‐exchange (WAX), reverse‐phase, water‐wettable polymer cartridge (Gebbink et al , Heydebreck et al , Strynar et al ). WAX cartridges improve the recovery of GenX and other PFEAs compared with the styrene–divinylbenzene SPE cartridges recommended in USEPA Method 537.…”

“…Strynar et al () first identified GenX along with other PFEAs (Table ) in US surface waters, and Sun et al () reported GenX concentrations of up to 4,560 ng/L in the Cape Fear River of North Carolina. Most recently, Gebbink et al () conducted a detailed study of the Rhine River near a fluorochemical manufacturing facility in the Netherlands and determined a maximum GenX concentration of 812 ng/L at the first sampling location downstream of the manufacturing plant.…”

“…Only two studies have documented the concentration of GenX in drinking water. Sun et al () found a GenX concentration of 474 ng/L in finished drinking water derived from the Cape Fear River, while Gebbink et al () determined a maximum GenX concentration of 11 ng/L in Dutch drinking water that was sourced from a GenX‐impacted river. Sun et al () further documented that GenX constituted only a small fraction of the total concentration of targeted PFEAs in both raw and finished drinking water.…”