“…In rats, injections of epinephrine and glucose, at doses optimal for enhancing memory, result in comparable increases in blood glucose concentrations (Gold, 1995). Like epinephrine, glucose administration enhances memory (Flint & Riccio, 1999;Gold, 1986;Kopf & Baratti, 1996;Messier, 1997) and attenuates memory deficits in rodents (Flint & Riccio, 1997;Stone, Croul, & Gold, 1988;Stone, Rudd, & Gold, 1995;Winocur & Gagnon, 1998). In humans, glucose administration improves declarative memory in healthy young and elderly participants, as well as in participants with Alzheimer's disease, Down syndrome, and schizophrenia (Benton & Owens, 1993;Craft, Murphy, & Wenstrom, 1994;Foster, Lidder, & Sünram, 1998Hall, Gonder-Frederick, Chewning, Silveira, & Gold, 1989;Manning, Parsons, Cotter, & Gold, 1997;Manning, Stone, Korol, & Gold, 1998;Messier, Pierre, Desrochers, & Gravel, 1998;Newcomer et al, 1999).…”